Abstract
Johan van Benthem has highlighted in his work that many questions arising in the analysis of strategic interaction call for logical and computational analysis. These questions lead to both formal and conceptually illuminating answers, in that they contribute to clarifying some of the underlying assumptions behind certain aspects of game-theoretical reasoning. We focus on the insights of a part of the literature at the interface of game theory and mathematical logic that gravitates around van Benthem’s work. We discuss the formal questions raised by the perspective consisting in taking games as models for formal languages, in particular modal languages, and how eliminative reasoning processes and solution algorithms can be analyzed logically as epistemic dynamics and discuss the role played by beliefs in game-theoretical analysis and how they should be modeled from a logical point of view. We give many pointers to the literature throughout the paper.
References (83)
- Carlos E. Alchourrón, Pater Gärdenfors, and David Makinson. On the logic of the- ory change: partial meet contraction and revision functions. Journal of Symbolic Logic, 50(2):510-530, 1985.
- Rajeev Alur, Thomas A. Henzinger, and Orna Kupferman. Alternating-time tempo- ral logic. In Proceedings of the 38th IEEE Symposium on Foundations of Com- puter Science, 1997.
- Robert J. Aumann. Agreeing to disagree. The Annals of Statistics, 4(6):1236-1239, 1976.
- Robert J. Aumann. Backward induction and common knowledge of rationality. Games and Economic Behavior, 8(1):6-19, 1995.
- Robert J. Aumann. Interactive epistemology I: Knowledge. International Journal of Game Theory, 28(3):263-300, 1999.
- Michael Bacharach. The epistemic structure of a theory of a game. Theory and Decision, 37:7-48, 1994.
- Alexandru Baltag and Lawrence S. Moss. Logics for Epistemic Programs. Synthese, 139(2):165-224, 2004.
- Alexandru Baltag and Sonja Smets. Dynamic belief revision over multi-agent plau- sibility models. In G. Bonanno, W. van der Hoek, and M. Wooldridge, edi- tors, Logic and the Foundations of Game and Decision Theory: Proceedings of LOFT'06, TLG, pages 11-24. AUP, 2006.
- Alexandru Baltag and Sonja Smets. Group belief dynamics under iterated revision: fixed points and cycles of joint upgrades. In Aviad Heifetz, editor, TARK, pages 41-50, 2009.
- Alexandru Baltag, Lawrence S. Moss, and Slawomir Solecki. The logic of public announcements, common knowledge, and private suspicions. In TARK '98: Pro- ceedings of the 7th conference on Theoretical Aspects of Rationality and Knowl- edge, pages 43-56, San Francisco, CA, USA, 1998. Morgan Kaufmann Publish- ers Inc.
- Alexandru Baltag, Sonja Smets, and Jonathan A. Zvesper. Keep 'hoping' for ratio- nality: a solution to the backward induction paradox. Synthese, 169(2):301-333, 2009.
- Alexandru Baltag, Nina Gierasimczuk, and Sonja Smets. Belief revision as a truth- tracking process. In Krzysztof R. Apt, editor, TARK, pages 187-190. ACM, 2011. Pierpaolo Battigalli and Giacomo Bonanno. Synchronic information, knowledge and common knowledge in extensive games. In M. Bacharach, L.A. Gérard- Varet, P. Mongin, and H. Shin, editors, Epistemic Logic and the Theory of Games and Decisions, Theory and decision library, pages 235-263. Kluwer Academic, 1997. Reprinted in (Battigalli and Bonanno, 1999b).
- Pierpaolo Battigalli and Giacomo Bonanno. Recent results on belief, knowledge and the epistemic foundations of game theory. Research in Economics, 53(2): 149-225, 1999a.
- Pierpaolo Battigalli and Giacomo Bonanno. Synchronic information, knowledge and common knowledge in extensive games. Research in Economics, 53(1):77- 99, 1999b.
- Nuel Belnap, Michael Perloff, and Ming Xu. Facing the future: Agents and choices in our indeterminist world. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2001.
- Johan van Benthem. Modal Logic and Classical Logic. Bibliopolis, Naples, 1983. Johan van Benthem. Exploring logical dynamics. Center for the Study of Language and Information, Stanford, CA, USA, 1997.
- Johan van Benthem. Games in dynamic-epistemic logic. Bulletin of Economic Research, 53(4):219-48, 2001.
- Johan van Benthem. Extensive games as process models. Journal of Logic, Lan- guage and Information, 11(3):289-313, 2002.
- Johan van Benthem. One is a lonely number. In Z. Chatzidakis, P. Koepke, and W. Pohlers, editors, Logic Colloquium '02, Wellesley MA, 2006. ASL & A.K. Peters.
- Johan van Benthem. Five questions on game theory. Automatic Press, 2007a. Johan van Benthem. Rational dynamics and epistemic logic in games. International Game Theory Review, 9(1):377-409, 2007b. Erratum reprint, Volume 9(2), 2007, 377-409.
- Johan van Benthem. Dynamic logic for belief change. Journal of Applied Non- Classical Logics, 17(2):129-155, 2007c.
- Johan van Benthem and Cédric Dégremont. Bridges between dynamic doxastic and doxastic temporal logics. In Bonanno et al. (2010), pages 151-173.
- Johan van Benthem and Amélie Gheerbrant. Game solution, epistemic dynamics and fixed-point logics. Fundamenta Informaticae, 100(1-4):19-41, 2010. Johan van Benthem and Fenrong Liu. Diversity of logical agents in games. Philosophia Scientiae, 8:163-178, 2004.
- Johan van Benthem and Eric Pacuit. The tree of knowledge in action: towards a common perspective. In I. Hodkinson G. Governatori and Y. Venema, editors, Advances in Modal Logic, volume 6. College Publications, 2006.
- Johan van Benthem, Sieuwert van Otterlo, and Olivier Roy. Preference logic, con- ditionals and solution concepts in games. In S. Lindström H. Lagerlund and R. Sliwinski, editors, Modality Matters. Festschrift for Krister Segerberg, pages 61-76. University of Uppsala, 2005. also available on the ILLC prepublication repository: PP-2005-28.
- Johan van Benthem, Jelle Gerbrandy, Tomohiro Hoshi, and Eric Pacuit. Merging frameworks for interaction: DEL and ETL. Journal of Philosophical Logic, 2009.
- Johan van Benthem, Eric Pacuit, and Olivier Roy. Toward a theory of play: A logical perspective on games and interaction. Games, 2(1):52-86, 2011.
- B. Douglas Bernheim. Rationalizable strategic behavior. Econometrica, 52(4): 1007-1028, 1984.
- Lawrence Blume, Adam Brandenburger, and Eddie Dekel. Lexicographic probabil- ities and choice under uncertainty. Econometrica, 59(1):61-79, 1991.
- Oliver Board. Dynamic interactive epistemology. Games and Economic Behavior, 49:49-80, 2004.
- Giacomo Bonanno. Set-theoretic equivalence of extensive-form games. Interna- tional Journal of Game Theory, 20(4):429-447, 1992a.
- Giacomo Bonanno. Players' information in extensive games. Mathematical Social Sciences, 24(1):35-48, 1992b.
- Giacomo Bonanno. A syntactic characterization of perfect recall in extensive games. Research in Economics, 57(3):201-217, 2003.
- Giacomo Bonanno. Axiomatic characterization of the AGM theory of belief revision in a temporal logic. Artif. Intell., 171(2-3):144-160, 2007.
- Giacomo Bonanno. A syntactic approach to rationality in games with ordinal pay- offs. In Bonanno et al. (2010), pages 59-86.
- Giacomo Bonanno. A dynamic epistemic characterization of backward induction without counterfactuals. Games and Economic Behavior, 78:31-43, 2013. 1 Logic and Game Theory 29
- Giacomo Bonanno, Benedikt Löwe, and Wiebe van der Hoek, editors. Logic and the Foundations of Game and Decision Theory -LOFT 8, 8th International Con- ference, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, July 3-5, 2008, Revised Selected Papers, volume 6006 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 2010. Springer.
- Adam Brandenburger, Amanda Friedenberg, and H. Jerome Keisler. Admissibility in games. Econometrica, 76(2):307-352, 2008.
- Jan Broersen, Andreas Herzig, and Nicolas Troquard. Normal Coalition Logic and its conformant extension. In Dov Samet, editor, pages 91-101. PUL, 2007.
- Boudewijn de Bruin. Common knowledge of rationality in extensive games. Notre Dame Journal of Formal Logic, 49(3):261-280, 2008.
- Brian F. Chellas. Modal Logic: An Introduction. Cambridge University Press, 1980.
- Norman Dalkey. Equivalence of information patterns and essentially determinate games. In H.W. Kuhn and A.W. Tucker, editors, Contributions to the theory of games, vol. II, Annals of Mathematics Studies, no. 28, pages 217-243. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N. J., 1953.
- Anuj Dawar, Erich Grädel, and Stephan Kreutzer. Inflationary fixed points in modal logic. ACM Transactions on Computational Logic, 5(2):282-315, 2004. Cédric Dégremont. The Temporal Mind. Observations on the logic of belief change in interactive systems. PhD thesis, ILLC, Universiteit van Amsterdam, 2010. ILLC Dissertation Series DS-2010-03.
- Cédric Dégremont and Olivier Roy. Agreement theorems in dynamic-epistemic logic. J. Philosophical Logic, 41(4):735-764, 2012.
- Hans van Ditmarsch. Prolegomena to dynamic logic for belief revision. Synthese, 147:229-275, 2005.
- Heinz-Dieter Ebbinghaus, Jörg Flum, and Wolfgang Thomas. Mathematical logic (2. ed.). Undergraduate texts in mathematics. Springer, 1994. ISBN 978-3-540- 94258-0.
- Andrzej Ehrenfeucht. An application of games to the completeness problem for formalized theories. Fundamenta Mathematicae, 49:129-141, 1961. Jan van Eijck and Martin Stokhof. The Gamut of Dynamic Logics. In D. Gabbay and J. Woods, editors, Handbook of the History of Logic, Volume 6 -Logic and the Modalities in the Twentieth Century, pages 499-600. Elsevier, 2006.
- Ronald Fagin, Joseph Y. Halpern, Yoram Moses, and Moshe Y. Vardi. Reasoning About Knowledge. MIT Press, Cambridge, 1995.
- Roland Fraïssé. Sur quelques classifications des systèmes de relations. Publ. Sci. Univ. Alger. Sér. A., 1:35-182, 1954.
- Nir Friedman and Joseph Y. Halpern. Modeling belief in dynamic systems, part I: foundations. Artificial Intelligence, 95(2):257-316, 1997.
- Jelle Gerbrandy. Bisimulations on Planet Kripke. PhD thesis, ILLC, Universiteit van Amsterdam, 1999. ILLC Dissertation Series DS-1999-01.
- Amélie Gheerbrant. Fixed-Point Logics on Trees. PhD thesis, University of Ams- terdam, 2010. ILLC Dissertation Series DS-2010-08.
- Erich Grädel and Stephan Kreutzer. Will deflation lead to depletion? on non- monotone fixed point inductions. In LICS, pages 158-. IEEE Computer Society, 2003. ISBN 0-7695-1884-2.
- Adam Grove. Two modellings for theory change. Journal of Philosophical Logic, 17:157-170, 1988.
- Yuri Gurevich and Saharon Shelah. Fixed-point extensions of first-order logic. An- nals of Pure and Applied Logic, 32:265-280, 1986.
- Joseph Y. Halpern and Moshe Y. Vardi. The complexity of reasoning about knowl- edge and time. I. Lower bounds. Journal of Computer and Systems Science, 38 (1):195-237, 1989.
- David Harel. Recurring dominoes: making the highly undecidable highly under- standable. In Topics in the theory of computation, pages 51-71, New York, NY, USA, 1985. Elsevier. ISBN 0-444-87647-2.
- Vincent Hendricks, Dick de Jongh, and Nina Gierasimczuk. Learning theory and logic. In A. Baltag and S. Smets, editors, Logical/Informational Dynamics, num- ber NBR in Trends in Logic, page PAGES. Springer, 2013.
- Wiebe van der Hoek and Marc Pauly. Modal logic for games and information. In Patrick Blackburn, Johan van Benthem, and Frank Wolter, editors, The Handbook of Modal Logic, pages 1077-1148. Elsevier, 2006.
- Tomohiro Hoshi. Epistemic Dynamics and Protocol Information. PhD thesis, Stan- ford, 2009.
- Elon Kohlberg and Jean-Franc ¸ois Mertens. On the strategic stability of equilibria. Econometrica, 54(5):1003-1037, 1986.
- W. D. Krentel, J. C. C. McKinsey, and W. V. Quine. A simplification of games in extensive form. Duke Mathematical Journal, 18:885-900, 1951.
- Stephan Kreutzer. Expressive equivalence of least and inflationary fixed-point logic. Annals of Pure and Applied Logic, 130(1-3):61-78, 2004.
- Harold W. Kuhn. Extensive games and the problem of information. In H.W. Kuhn and A.W. Tucker, editors, Contributions to the theory of games, vol. II, Annals of Mathematics Studies, no. 28, pages 193-216. Princeton University Press, Prince- ton, N. J., 1953.
- Joseph S. Miller and Lawrence S. Moss. The undecidability of iterated modal rela- tivization. Studia Logica, 79(3):373-407, 2005.
- Yiannis M. Moschovakis. Elementary Induction on Abstract Structures. North- Holland, New York, 1974.
- Roger B. Myerson. Game Theory: Analysis of Conflict. Harvard University Press, 1991.
- Martin Osborne. An introduction to game theory. Oxford University Press, New York, 2004.
- Christos H. Papadimitriou. Computational Complexity. Addison Wesley, 1994.
- Marc Pauly. A modal logic for coalitional power in games. Journal of Logic and Computation, 12(1):149-166, 2002.
- Marc Pauly and Rohit Parikh. Game logic -an overview. Studia Logica, 75(2): 165-182, 2003.
- Logic and Game Theory 31
- David G Pearce. Rationalizable strategic behavior and the problem of perfection. Econometrica, 52(4):1029-1050, 1984.
- Andrés Perea. Epistemic foundations for backward induction: an overview. In Johan van Benthem, Dov Gabbay, and Benedikt Löwe, editors, Interactive logic. Proceedings of the 7th Augustus de Morgan Workshop, volume 1 of Texts in Logic and Games, pages 159-193. Amsterdam University Press, 2007.
- Jan A. Plaza. Logics of public communications. In M.L. Emrich, M.S. Pfeifer, M. Hadzikadic, and Z.W. Ras, editors, Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on Methodologies for Intelligent Systems: Poster Session Program, pages 201-216. Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 1989.
- Antonio Quesada. On expressing maximum information in extensive games. Math- ematical Social Sciences, 42(2):161-167, 2001.
- Philip J. Reny. Common belief and the theory of games with perfect information. Journal of Economic Theory, 59(2):257-274, 1993.
- Gabriel Sandu. Learning theory and logic. In A. Baltag and S. Smets, editors, Game semantics in philosophical logic, number NBR in Trends in Logic, page PAGES. Springer, 2013.
- Reinhardt Selten. Reexamination of the perfectness concept for equilibrium points in extensive games. International Journal of Game Theory, 4:25-55, 1975.
- Robert Stalnaker. On the evaluation of solution concepts. Theory and Decision, 37: 49-73, 1994.
- Elmes Susan and Philip J. Reny. On the strategic equivalence of extensive form games. Journal of Economic Theory, 62(1):1-23, 1994.
- F.B. Thompson. Equivalence of games in extensive form. RAND Research memo- randum 759, The RAND Corporation, 1952.
- Jonathan A. Zvesper. Playing with information. PhD thesis, ILLC, Universiteit van Amsterdam, 2010. ILLC Dissertation Series DS-2010-02.