Military Technology and World History: A Reconnaissance

References (306)

1. Culture, and Environment (Orlando, Fla., 1984). See also Ferguson, "Tribal Warfare," Scientific American 266 (Jan. 1992), 108-13.
2. Andrew M. T. Moore, "The Development of Neolithic Societies in the Near East," Advances in World Archaeology 4 (1985), 1-69; Marilyn Keyes Roper, "Evidence of Warfare in the Near East from 10,000-4,300 BC," in Martin A. Nettleship et al., eds., War: Its Causes and Correlates (The Hague, 1975), pp. 299-343; Anne P. Underhill, "Warfare during the Chinese Neolithic Period: A Review of the Evidence," in Diana Claire Tkaczuk and Brian C. Vivian, eds., Cultures in Conflict: Current Archaeological Perspectives (Calgary, 1989), pp. 229-37.
3. Amihai Mazar, "The Fortification of Cities in the Ancient Near East," in Jack M. Sasson et al., eds., Civilizations of the Ancient Near East (4 vols.; New York, 1995), vol. 3, pp. 1523-37. More generally, see Timothy Champion, "Fortification, Ranking and Subsistence," in Colin Renfrew and Stephen Shennan, eds., Ranking, Resource and Exchange: Aspects of the Archaeology of Early European Society (New York, 1982), pp. 61-66;
4. Michael J. Rowlands, "Defence: A Factor in the Organization of Settlements," in Peter J. Ucko et al., eds., Man, Settlement and Urbanism (London, 1972), pp. 447-62. 7. The best survey is still Yigael Yadin, The Art of Warfare in Biblical Lands: In the Light of Archaeological Study, trans. M. Pearlman, (2 vols.; New York, 1963). More recent overviews include Oliver Dickinson, "Weapons and Armour," in The Aegean Bronze Age (Cambridge, 1994), pp. 197-207; Anthony Harding, "Stone, Bronze and Iron," in Multimedia Books Limited, comp., Swords and Hilt Weapons (New York, 1993), pp. 8-19. See also Leonard M. Dudley's comments on the special significance of metal weapons in "The Age of Gilgamesh," chap. 2 in The Word and the Sword: How Techniques of Information and Violence Have Shaped Our World (Cambridge, Mass., and Oxford, 1991), pp. 47-76.
5. For a fully annotated discussion of the social invention of armies, see Barton C. Hacker and Sally L. Hacker, "Military Institutions and the Labor Process: Noneconomic Sources of Technological Change, Women's Subordination, and the Organization of Work," Technology and Culture 28 (1987), 757-64. Two recent studies, though focused on battles rather than institutions, do touch aspects of the same topic: Richard A. Gabriel, The Culture of War: Invention and Early Development (New York, 1990), relatively lightweight; and, more substantial, Arther Ferrill, The Origins of War: From the Stone Age to Alexander the Great (London, 1985). See also the well-illustrated articles in John Hackett, ed., Warfare in the Ancient World (London, 1989).
6. On the links between armies and states, the seminal modern statement is Robert L. Carneiro, "A Theory of the Origin of the State," Science 169 (1970), 733-38, widely reprinted. For further developments, including Carneiro's response to his critics, see Paul B. Roscoe and Robert B. Graber, eds., "Circumscription and the Evolution of Society," American Behavioral Scientist 31 (1988), 403-511. See also David L. Webster, "Warfare and the Evolution of the State: A Reconsideration," American Antiquity 40 (1975), 464- 70;
7. Herbert S. Lewis, "Warfare and the Origin of the State: Another Formulation," in
8. Henri J. M. Claessen and Peter Skalnfk, eds., The Study of the State (The Hague, 1981), pp. 201-21; Jonathan Haas, The Evolution of the Prehistoric State (New York, 1982);
9. Ronald Cohen, "Warfare and State Formation: Wars Make States and States Make War," in Ferguson, Warfare, Culture, and Environment (note 4), pp. 329-58.
10. Lewis Mumford, The Myth of the Machine, vol. 1, Technics and Human Develop- ment (New York, 1967), p. 217. See also Slavomil Vencl, "War and Warfare in Archaeol- ogy," trans. Petr Charvait, Journal ofAnthropological Archaeology 3 (1984), 116-32. 11. The four-volume reference work edited by Sasson et al., Civilizations of the Ancient Near East (note 6), provides up-to-date surveys of early military institutions: see Stephanie Dalley, "Ancient Mesopotamian Military Organization," vol. 1, pp. 413-22;
11. and Alan R. Schulman, "Military Organization in Pharaonic Egypt," vol. 1, pp. 289-301. See also J. N. Postgate, "War and Peace," chap. 13 in Early Mesopotamia: Society and Economy at the Dawn of History (Rev. ed.; London and New York, 1994), pp. 241-59.
12. Keith Branigan, "Society and Social Organization," chap. 6 in The Foundations of Palatial Crete: A Survey of Crete in the Early Bronze Age (New York, 1970), pp. 114- 25, notes the apparent lack of interest in matters military, unique among bronze age societies. Colin Renfrew vigorously dissents in The Emergence of Civilization: The Cyclades and the Aegean in the Third Millennium BC (London, 1972), especially in sections on "Piracy and Security in the Prehistoric Aegean," pp. 262-64; "The Develop- ment of Weapons in the Third Millennium BC," pp. 319-25; and "Hostility and the Inception of Warfare," pp. 390-99. For a recent review of the myth of Cretan pacifism, see "Testing the Tradition" in Rodney Castleden, Minoans: Life in Bronze Age Crete (Lon- don and New York, 1990), pp. 162-67; he also discusses "Arms and Armour," pp. 18-21.
13. As Stuart W. Manning observes ("The Military Function in Late Minoan I Crete: A Note," World Archaeology 18 [1986], 284-88), lack of evidence for a military presence does not mean there was none.
14. Mortimer Wheeler, "Military Aspects of the Indus Civilization," in The Indus Civilization: Supplementary Volume to the Cambridge History of India (3rd ed.; Cam- bridge, 1968), pp. 72-78;
15. B. K. Thapar, "New Traits of the Indus Civilization at Kalibangan: An Appraisal," in Norman Hammond, ed., South Asian Archaeology (Park Ridge, N.J., 1973), pp. 85-104. Cf. M. S. Mate, "Harappan Fortifications: A Study," Indian Antiquary (Bombay), 3rd series, vol. 4 (1970), 75-84. A well-informed overview is Bridget Allchin and Raymond Allchin, The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan (Cambridge, 1982).
16. Malcolm F. Farmer, "The Origin of Weapon Systems," Current Anthropology 35 (1994), 679-81; Joseph Needham et al., "Projectile Weapons I, Archery: The Bow," section 30, pt. (d) (1), in Military Technology: Missiles and Sieges, vol. 5, pt. 6, of Science and Civilisation in China (Cambridge, 1994), pp. 101-20; Robert L. Miller et al., "Experimental Approaches to Ancient Near Eastern Archery," World Archaeology 18 (1986), 178-95; Edward McEwen et al., "Early Bow Design and Construction," Scientific American 264 (June 1991), 76-82. See also Vic Hurley, "First Appearances of the Bow in War," chap. 6 in Arrows against Steel: The History of the Bow (New York, 1975), pp. 53- 59. 15. Recent surveys include Wolfram von Soden, "State and Society: The Army and Warfare," chap. 6.5 in The Ancient Orient: An Introduction to the Study of the Ancient Near East, trans. Donald G. Schley (Grand Rapids, Mich., and Leominster, 1994), pp. 82- 86;
17. Terence Wise and Angus McBride, Ancient Armies of the Middle East (Osprey Men- at-Arms Series 109; London, 1981).
18. Stuart Piggott, "Chariots and Chariotry," chap. 2 in Wagon, Chariot and Carriage: Symbol and Status in the History of Transport (New York, 1992), pp. 37-68; P. R. S. Moorey, "The Emergence of the Light, Horse-drawn Chariot in the Near-East, c. 2000-1500 Bc," World Archaeology 18 (1986), 196-215; Mary Aiken Littauer and Joost H. Crouwel, Chariots and Related Equipment from the Tomb of Tut'ankhamun (Oxford, 1985);
19. Littauer and Crouwel, Wheeled Vehicles and Ridden Animals in the Ancient Near East (Leiden, 1979), chaps. 8-9.
20. Oliver Dickinson, "Arts and Crafts: Weapons and Armour," chap. 5.(x) in The Aegean Bronze Age (Cambridge, 1995), pp. 197-207; A. F. Harding, "Warfare, Weapons and Armour," chap. 6 in The Mycenaeans and Europe (London, 1984), pp. 151-87;
21. William Taylour, "War and Trade," chap. 7 in The Mycenaeans (rev. ed.; New York, 1983), pp. 135-54.
22. G. D. Bakshi, Mahabharata: A Military Analysis (New Delhi, 1990);
23. S. P.
24. Sharma, "Art of War in Ancient India," in H. S. Bhatia, ed., Political, Legal and Military History of India (5 vols.; New Delhi, 1984), vol. 1, pp. 366-76; Sarva Daman Singh, Ancient Indian Warfare: With Special Reference to the Vedic Period (Leiden, 1965; reprint Delhi, 1989).
25. Edward L. Shaughnessy, "Historical Perspectives on the Introduction of the Chariot into China," Harvard Journal ofAsiatic Studies 48 (1988), 189-237; Kwang-chih Chang, Shang Civilization (New Haven, 1980);
26. David N. Keightley, ed., The Origins of Chinese Civilization (Berkeley, 1983);
27. C. J. Peers and Angus McBride, Ancient Chinese Armies, 1500-200 Bc (Osprey Men-at-Arms Series 218; London, 1990).
28. John Coles, "Parade and Display: Experiments in Bronze Age Europe," in
29. Vladimir Markotic, ed., Ancient Europe and the Mediterranean: Studies Presented in Honour of Hugh Hencken (Warminster, 1977), pp. 50-58; Peter Gelling and Hilda Ellis Davidson, The Chariot of the Sun: And Other Rites and Symbols of the Northern Bronze Age (New York, 1969).
30. Richard H. Beal has studied in detail The Organisation of the Hittite Military (Heidelberg, 1992); he provides a convenient summary of "Hittite Military Organization" in Sasson et al., Civilizations of the Ancient Near East (note 6), vol. 1, pp. 545-54. See also J. G. Macqueen, "Warfare and Defence," chap. 4 in The Hittites, and Their Contem- poraries in Asia Minor (rev. ed.; London, 1986), pp. 53-73.
31. James D. Muhly et al., "Iron in Anatolia and the Nature of the Hittite Iron Industry," Anatolian Studies 35 (1985), 67-84; Robert Maddin et al., "How the Iron Age Began," Scientific American 237 (Oct. 1977), 122-31; Theodore A. Wertime and James D. Muhly, eds., The Coming of the Age of Iron (New Haven, 1980);
32. N. K. Sandars, The Sea Peoples: Warriors of the Ancient Mediterranean, 1250-1150 BC (rev. ed.; London, 1985);
33. Robert Drews, The End of the Bronze Age: Changes in Warfare and the Catastro- phe ca. 1200 Bc (Princeton, 1993).
34. Hans Van Wees, Status Warriors: War, Violence and Society in Homer and History (Amsterdam, 1992);
35. Robert Drews, "The New Warfare," chap. 5 in The Coming of the Greeks: Indo-European Conquests in the Aegean and the Near East (Princeton, 1988), pp. 74-120;
36. Anthony M. Snodgrass, "Interaction by Design: The Greek City State," in Colin Renfrew and John F. Cherry, eds., Peer Polity Interaction and Socio- Political Change (Cambridge, 1986), pp. 47-58; Mary Aiken Littauer and Joost H. Crouwel, "Chariots in Late Bronze Age Greece," Antiquity 57 (1983), 187-92.
37. David W. Anthony and Dorcas R. Brown, "The Origins of Horseback Riding," Antiquity 65 (1991), 22-38; Anthony et al., "The Origin of Horseback Riding," Scientific American 265 (Dec. 1991), 94-100;
38. Chauncey S. Goodrich, "Riding Astride and the Saddle in Ancient Times," Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 44 (1984), 279-306. See also John Ellis, "The Coming of the War Horse: The Beginnings to 750 BC," chap. 1 in Cavalry: The History of Mounted Warfare (New York, 1978), pp. 7-21.
39. Renate Rolle, "Armed Warriors on Red Steeds," chap. 5 in The World of the Scythians, trans. F. G. Walls (Berkeley, 1989), pp. 64-91;
40. E. V. Cernenko et al., The Scythians, 700-300 Bc (Osprey Men-at-Arms Series 137; London, 1983). On nomads in the eastern reaches of Eurasia, see Jenny F. So and Emma C. Bunker, "The Arrival of Mounted Tribes: Seventh-Sixth Century BC," in Traders and Raiders on China's North- ern Frontier (Seattle, 1995), pp. 47-50; Jaroslav Prusek, Chinese Statelets and the Northern Barbarians, 1400-300 Bc (Dordrecht and Prague, 1971).
41. Israel Eph'al, "On Warfare and Military Control in the Ancient Near Eastern Empires: A Research Outline," in H. Tadmor and M. Weinfeld, eds., History, Historiog- raphy and Interpretation: Studies in Biblical and Cuneiform Literatures (Jerusalem, 1983), pp. 88-106. See also Frances F. Berdan, "The Reconstruction of Ancient Econo- mies: Perspectives from Archaeology and Ethnohistory," in Sutti Ortiz, ed., Economic Anthropology: Topics and Theories (Lanham, Md., 1983), pp. 83-95, especially the section on "The Role of the Economy in Imperial Expansion." 27. Norman Kotker, "The Assyrians," Military History Quarterly 3 (Summer 1991), 8-19;
42. H. W. F. Saggs, "The Assyrian Army," chap. 16 in The Might That Was Assyria (London, 1984), pp. 243-68; D. J. Wiseman, "The Assyrians," in Hackett, Warfare in the Ancient World (note 8), pp. 36-53.
43. Duncan Head, The Achaemenid Persian Army (Stockport, England, 1992);
44. Muhammad A. Danamaev and Vladimir G. Lukonin, "The Social Institutions and the Economic Structure of the Achaemenid Empire: The Army," chap. 2, pt. K, in The Culture and Social Institutions of Ancient Iran, trans. Philip L. Kohl with D. J. Dadson (Cambridge, 1989), pp. 222-37; J. M. Cook, "The Armed Forces and Communications," chap. 10 in The Persian Empire (New York, 1983), pp. 101-12; Nick Sekunda, "The Persians," in Hackett, Warfare in the Ancient World (note 8), pp. 82-103.
45. Peter Green, The Greco-Persian Wars (Rev. ed.; Berkeley, 1996);
46. Jack Cassin- Scott, The Greek and Persian Wars, 500-323 Bc (Osprey Men-at-Arms Series 69; Lon- don, 1977);
47. Chryssis P. Pelekidis and Alexander I. Despotopoulis. "From Marathon to Thermopylai, Salamis and Plataiai," in History of the Hellenic World: The Archaic Period (University Park, Penn., 1975), pp. 296-373.
48. Victor Davis Hanson has lately reexamined the character and culture of Greek warfare; see The Western Way of War: Infantry Battle in Classical Greece (New York, 1989);
49. The Other Greeks: The Family Farm and the Agrarian Roots of Western Civiliza- tion (New York, 1995); see also his edited collection, Hoplites: The Classical Greek Battle Experience (London and New York, 1991). Good overviews are J. K. Anderson, "Wars and Military Science," in Michael Grant and Rachel Kitzinger, eds., Civilization of the Ancient Mediterranean: Greece and Rome (3 vols.; New York, 1988);
50. Pierre Ducrey, Warfare in Ancient Greece, trans. Janet Lloyd (New York, 1985). For other viewpoints, see Joseph M. Bryant, "Military Technology and Socio-Cultural Change in the Ancient Greek City," Sociological Review 38 (1990), 484-516; Jean-Pierre Vemrnant, "City-State Warfare," chap. 2 in Myth and Society in Ancient Greece, trans. Janet Lloyd (New York, 1988), pp. 29-53;
51. R. T. Ridley, "The Hoplite as Citizen: Athenian Military Institutions in Their Social Context," L'antiquite classique 48 (1979), 508-48. The articles in John Rich and Graham Shipley, eds., War and Society in the Greek World (London, 1993), must be treated with caution.
52. George Erdosy, "City States of North India and Pakistan at the Time of the Buddha," chap. 7 in F. R. Allchin, The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States (Cambridge, 1995), pp. 99-122; Tara Bhusan Mukherji, Inter-State Relations in Ancient India (Meerut, 1967);
53. B. P. Sinha, "Art of War in Ancient India, 600 Bc-300 AD," Cahiers d'histoire mondiale 4 (1957), 123-60.
54. Mark Edward Lewis, Sanctioned Violence in Early China (Albany, N.Y., 1990);
55. Needham et al., "Chinese Literature on the Art of War," chap. 30 (b) in Military Technology (note 14), pp. 10-66; Ch'i-ytin Chang, "The Strategists Who Left behind Books on Strategy," chap. 12 in China's Cultural Achievements during the Warring States Period, trans. Orient Lee Yangmingshan (Taiwan, 1983), pp. 345-66; Cho-yun Hsu, "Wars and Warriors," chap. 3 in Ancient China in Transition: An Analysis of Social Mobility, 722-222 BC (Stanford, 1965), pp. 53-77; Frank A. Kierman, Jr., "Phases and Modes of Combat in Early China," in Kierman and John K. Fairbank, eds., Chinese Ways in Warfare (Cambridge, Mass., 1974), pp. 27-66.
56. Eugene N. Borza, "What Philip Wrought," Military History Quarterly 5 (Sum- Pagani, with David Miller, "The Land of Hungry Ghosts: Warfare in Ancient China," part 2 in The First Emperor of China (New York, 1989), pp. 40-81; Hans Bielenstein, "The Army," chap. 4 in The Bureaucracy of Han Times (Cambridge, 1980), pp. 114-24. 40. Israel Eph'al, The Ancient Arabs: Nomads on the Borders of the Fertile Crescent, 9th-5th Centuries Bc (Jerusalem and Leiden, 1982);
57. G. W. Bowersock, "Bound- aries and Defenses," chap. 7 in Roman Arabia (Cambridge, Mass., 1983), pp. 90-109; S. Thomas Parker, Romans and Saracens: A History of the Arabian Frontier (Winona Lake, Ind., 1986);
58. D. J. Mattingly, "War and Peace in Roman North Africa: Observations and Models of State-Tribe Interaction," in R. Brian Ferguson and Neil L. Whitehead, eds., War in the Tribal Zone: Expanding States and Indigenous Warfare (Santa Fe, 1992), pp. 31-60.
59. Thomas J. Barfield, "The Hsiung-nu Imperial Confederacy: Organization and Foreign Policy," Journal of Asian Studies 41 (1981), 45-61;
60. David Christian, "Inner Eurasia as a Unit of World History," Journal of World History 5 (Fall 1994), 173-211;
61. Denis Sinor, "Inner Asian Warriors," Journal of the American Oriental Society 101 (1981), 133-44;
62. Thomas J. Barfield, "The Devil's Horsemen: Steppe Nomadic Warfare in Historical Perspective," in Reyna and Downs, Studying War (note 4), pp. 157-82.
63. William H. McNeill, The Rise of the West: A History of the Human Community (Chicago, 1963), pp. 321-23. See also Juliet Clutton-Brock, "The Horses of Scythia and the Orient," chap. 7 in Horse Power: A History of the Horse and Donkey in Human Society (Cambridge, Mass., 1992), pp. 96-105; Geo Widengren, "On Horsemanship: A Review Article," Ethnos 48 (1983), 210-20; Mikl6s Jankovich, They Rode into Europe: The Fruitful Exchange in the Arts of Horsemanship between East and West, trans. Anthony Dent (New York, 1971). On Chinese efforts to maintain cavalry, see H. G. Creel, "The Role of the Horse in Chinese History," American Historical Review 70 (1965), 647- 72. 43.
64. Warren T. Treadgold, Byzantium and Its Army, 284-1081 (Stanford, 1995);
65. David Nicolle and Angus McBride, Romano-Byzantine Armies, 4th-9th Centuries (Osprey Men-at-Arms Series 247; London, 1992);
66. Mark C. Bartusis, The Late Byzantine Army: Arms and Society, 1204-1453 (Philadelphia, 1992). On special aspects of Byzantine military institutions, see Ann Hyland, "Byzantium and Her Enemies," chap. 2 in The Medieval Warhorse: From Byzantium to the Crusades (Stroud, 1994), pp. 18-53;
67. Walter Emil Kaegi, "Byzantine Logistics: Problems and Perspectives," in John A. Lynn, ed., Feeding Mars: Logistics in Western Warfare from the Middle Ages to the Present (Boulder, 1993), pp. 39-55; Clive Foss and David Winfield, Byzantine Fortifications: An Introduction (Pretoria, 1986).
68. C. R. Whittaker, "Warlords and Landlords in the Later Empire," chap. 7 in Frontiers of the Roman Empire: A Social and Economic Study (Baltimore, 1994), pp. 243-78;
69. C. D. Gordon, The Age of Attila: Fifth-Century Byzantium and the Barbarians (Ann Arbor, 1960; reprint New York, 1992);
70. Walter Goffart, "Rome, Constantinople, and the Barbarians," American Historical Review 86 (1981), 275-306; J. H. W. G. Liebeschuetz, Barbarians and Bishops: Army, Church, and State in the Age ofArcadius and Chrysostom (Oxford, 1990);
71. Irfan Shahid, Byzantium and the Arabs in the Fifth Century (Washington, 1989);
72. Wilcox and McBride, Parthians and Sassanid Persians (note 37), pp. 24-42;
73. Stanley Wolpert, "The Classical Age (AD 320-ca. 700)," chap. 7 in A New History of India (4th ed.; New York and Oxford, 1993), pp. 88-103.
74. Bernard S. Bachrach, "On Roman Ramparts, 300-1300," in Parker, Cambridge Illustrated History of Warfare (note 35), pp. 64-91; Malcolm Todd, "Armament and Warfare," chap. 5 in The Northern Barbarians, 100 BC-AD 300 (London, 1975), pp. 159- 81;
75. Thomas S. Burns, "Warriors and the Military System," chap. 8 in A History of the Ostrogoths (Bloomington, 1984), pp. 184-201; Lucien Musset, The Germanic Invasions: The Making of Europe, AD 400-600, trans. Edward and Columba James (London, 1975; reprint New York, 1993);
76. Justine Davis Randers-Pehrson, Barbarians and Romans: The Birth Struggle of Europe, AD 400-700 (Norman, 1983);
77. P. S. Bamrnwell, Emperor, Prefects, and Kings: The Roman West, 395-565 (Chapel Hill, 1992);
78. Walter Goffart, Barbarians and Romans, AD 418-584: The Techniques ofAccommodation (Princeton, 1980).
79. Tim Newark and Angus McBride, The Barbarians: Warriors and Wars of the Dark Ages (London, 1985);
80. Csaba Hiddin, "The Military Tactics of the Ancient Hungar- ians," in Csilla Sikl6di, ed., Between East and West (Budapest, 1996), pp. 39-67;
81. Jankovich, They Rode into Europe (note 42).
82. P. H. Sawyer, Kings and Vikings: Scandinavia and Europe, 700-1100 (London, 1982);
83. Peter Foote and David M. Wilson, "Warfare," chap. 8 in The Viking Achievement: The Society and Culture of Early Medieval Scandinavia (rev. ed.; London, 1980), pp. 263-85;
84. James Graham-Campbell, "Viking Warriors," chap. 3 in The Viking World (New Haven, 1980), pp. 20-35; Paddy Griffith, The Viking Art of War (London and Mechanicsburg, Penn., 1995).
85. Philippe Contamine, War in the Middle Ages, trans. Michael Jones (Oxford, 1984);
86. Nicholas Hooper and Matthew Bennett, Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages, 768-1487 (Cambridge, 1996);
87. Robert Bartlett, The Making of Europe: Conquest, Colonization, and Cultural Change, 950-1350 (Princeton, 1993);
88. Michael Prestwich, Armies and Warfare in the Middle Ages: The English Experience (New Haven, 1996);
89. Kelly DeVries, Medieval Military Technology (Peterborough, Ont., and Orchard Park, N.Y., 1992);
90. David Edge and John Miles Paddock, Arms and Armor of the Medieval Knight: An Illustrated History of Weaponry in the Middle Ages (New York, 1988). See also John R. Kenyon, Medieval Fortifications (Leicester, 1991).
91. Kierman and Fairbank, Chinese Ways in Warfare (note 32);
92. Arthur E. Wright, The Sui Dynasty: The Unification of China, AD 581-617 (New York, 1978);
93. Wang Gungwu, The Structure of Power in North China during the Five Dynasties (Koala Lumpur, 1963; reprint Stanford, 1967);
94. Karl Heinz Ranitzsch and Angus McBride, The Army of Tang China (Stockport, England, 1995).
95. For how Arab raiders became conquering Muslim armies, see Moshe Sharon, "The Military Reforms of Abu Muslim, Their Background and Consequences," in Moshe Sharon, ed., Studies of Islamic History and Civilization: In Honour of Professor David Ayalon (Jerusalem and Leiden, 1986), pp. 105-43. See also Elias Shoufani, Al-Riddah and the Muslim Conquest of Arabia (Toronto, 1973);
96. David C. Nicolle, Armies of the Muslim Conquest (Osprey Men-at-Arms Series 255; London, 1993);
97. Fred McGraw Donner, The Early Islamic Conquests (Princeton, 1981).
98. Daniel Pipes, Slave Soldiers and Islam: The Genesis of a Military System (New Haven, 1981);
99. Patricia Crone, Slaves on Horses: The Evolution of the Islamic Polity (Cambridge, 1980);
100. Jere L. Bacharach, "African Military Slaves in the Medieval Middle East: The Case of Iraq (869-955) and Egypt (808-1171)," International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 13 (1981), 471-95;
101. Allen R. Meyers, "Slave Soldiers and State Politics in Early 'Alawi Morocco, 1668-1727," International Journal ofAfrican Historical Studies 16 (1983), 39-48. More generally, see V. J. Parry, "Warfare," in P. M. Holt et al., eds., Islamic Society and Civilization, vol. 2B of The Cambridge History of Islam (Cambridge, 1970), pp. 824-50;
102. Edmund Bosworth, "Armies of the Prophet," in Bernard Lewis, ed., Islam and the Arab World: Faith, People, Culture (New York, 1976), pp. 201-24;
103. David C. Nicolle, The Armies of Islam, 7th-11th Centuries (Osprey Men-at-Arms Series 125; London, 1982).
104. Fergus Millar, The Roman Near East, 31 BC-AD 337 (Cambridge, Mass., 1993), especially chaps. 4 and 5; Benjamin Isaac, "Enemies and Allies after Setpimius Severus," chap. 5 in The Limits of Empire: The Roman Army in the East (rev. ed.; Oxford, 1993), pp. 219-68;
105. Michael H. Dodgeon and Samuel N. C. Lieu, comps. and eds., The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars, AD 226-363 (London, 1991);
106. Michael Whitby, The Emperor Maurice and His Historian: Theophylact Simocatta on Persian and Balkan Warfare (Oxford, 1988).
107. 'Abd al-Husain Zarrinkub, "The Arab Conquest of Iran and Its Aftermath," in
108. Richard N. Frye, ed., The Period from the Arab Invasion to the Saljuqs, vol. 4 of The Cambridge History of Iran (Cambridge, 1975), pp. 1-56;
109. David Morgan, Medieval Persia, 1040-1797 (London and New York, 1988);
110. Ann K. S. Lambton, "The Constitu- tion of Society (1). Elements of Change: The Ruling Family and the 'Men of the Sword,'" chap. 7 in Continuity and Change in Medieval Persia: Aspects of Administrative, Eco- nomic and Social History, ]]th-14th Century (Albany, N.Y., 1988), pp. 221-57. See also Clifford Edmund Bosworth, "The Army," chap. 3 in The Ghaznavids: Their Empire in Afghanistan and Eastern Iran, 944-1040 (Edinburgh, 1963; reprint New Delhi, 1992), pp. 98-128.
111. Walter Emil Kaegi, Byzantium and the Early Islamic Conquests (Cambridge, 1992);
112. Kaegi, "Heraklius and the Arabs," Greek Orthodox Theological Review 27 (1982), 109-33;
113. John W. Jandora, "The Battle of Yarmuk: A Reconstruction," Journal of Asian History 19 (1985), 8-21.
114. Roger Collins, The Arab Conquest of Spain, 710-797 (Oxford, 1989);
115. Elena Lourie, Crusade and Colonisation: Muslims, Christians, and Jews in Medieval Aragon (Aldershot and Brookfield, Vt., 1990);
116. Bernard S. Bachrach, Merovingian Military Organization, 481-751 (Minneapolis, 1972).
117. R. C. Smail, Crusading Warfare, 1097-1193 (2d ed.; Cambridge, 1995);
118. Ronald C. Finucane, Soldiers of the Faith: Crusaders and Moslems at War (New York, 1983);
119. Maya Schatzmiller, "The Crusades and Islamic Warfare-A Re-evaluation," Der Islam 55 (1992), 247-88;
120. John France, Victory in the East: A Military History of the First Crusade (Cambridge, 1994);
121. Norman Kotker, "The First Crusade," Military History Quarterly 2 (Winter 1990), 24-35;
122. Jonathan Riley-Smith, The First Crusade and the Idea of Crusading (Philadelphia, 1986);
123. Christopher Marshall, Warfare in the Latin East, 1192-1291 (New York, 1992);
124. R. Rogers, Latin Siege Warfare in the Twelfth Century (Oxford, 1992);
125. T. E. Lawrence, Crusader Castles (2d ed.; New York, 1988).
126. William H. McNeill, "The Age of Chinese Predominance, 1000-1500," chap. 2 in The Pursuit of Power: Technology, Armed Force, and Society since AD 1000 (Chicago, 1982), pp. 24-62; John Winthrop Haeger, ed., Crises and Prosperity in Sung China (Tucson, 1975);
127. Morris Rossabi, ed., China among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and Its Neighbors, lOth-14th Centuries (Berkeley, 1983).
128. Joseph Needham et al., eds., Military Technology: The Gunpowder Epic, vol. 5, pt. 7, of Science and Civilization in China (Cambridge, 1986); Sang-woon Jeon, "Gun- powder," in Science and Technology in Korea: Traditional Instruments and Techniques (Cambridge, Mass., 1974), pp. 269-72; Iqtidar Alam Khan, "Early Use of Cannon and Musket in India, AD 1442-1526," Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 24 (1981), 146-64; Halil Inalcik, "The Socio-Political Effects of the Diffusion of Fire-Arms in the Middle East," in V. J. Parry and M. E. Yapp, eds., War, Technology and Society in the Middle East (London, 1975), pp. 195-217;
129. David Ayalon, Gunpowder and Firearms in the Mamluk Kingdom: A Challenge to a Mediaeval Society (2d ed.; Totowa, N.J., 1978);
130. Weston E. Cook, Jr., The Hundred Years War for Morocco: Gunpowder and the Military Revolution in the Early Modern Muslim World (Boulder, 1994);
131. William H. McNeill, "The Gunpowder Revolution and the Rise of Atlantic Europe," in Pursuit of Power (note 57), pp. 79-102.
132. Thomas J. Barfield, The Perilous Frontier: Nomad Empires and China (Cam- bridge, Mass., and Oxford, 1989);
133. Sechin Jagchid and Van Jay Symons, Peace, War, And Trade along the Great Wall: Nomadic-Chinese Interaction through Two Millennia (Bloomington, 1989);
134. Gary Seaman and Daniel Marks, eds., Rulers from the Steppe: State Formation on the Eurasian Periphery (Los Angeles, 1991). More generally, see S. A. M. Adshead, Central Asia in World History (New York, 1993);
135. Luc Kwanten, Imperial Nomads: A History of Central Asia, 500-1500 (Philadelphia, 1979).
136. Robert Marshall, Storm from the East: From Genghis Khan to Khubilai Khan (Berkeley, 1993);
137. Paul Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan: His Life and Legacy, ed. and trans.
138. Thomas N. Haining (Oxford, 1992);
139. Leo de Hartog, "The Mongol Army," chap. 5 in Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World (New York, 1989), pp. 42-54; David Nicolle, The Mongol Warlords (New York, 1990);
140. David O. Morgan, "The Mongol Army," in The Mongols (Oxford, 1986), pp. 84-96; Sechin Jagchid and Paul Hyer, "Military Institutions: Structure and Function," in Mongolia's Culture and Society (Boulder and Folkestone, 1979), pp. 364-74; Morris Rossabi, "All the Khan's Horses," Natural History 103 (Oct. 1994), 48-57;
141. John Masson Smith, Jr., "Mongol Campaign Rations: Milk, Marmots, and Blood?" Journal of Turkish Studies 8 (1984), 223-28.
142. Elizabeth Endicott-West, "Imperial Governance in Yuian Times," Harvard Journal ofAsiatic Studies 46 (1986), 523-49; Ch'i-ch'ing Hsiao, The Military Establish- ment of the Yiian Dynasty (Cambridge, Mass., 1978);
143. Romeyn Taylor, "Yuan Origins of the Wei-so System," in Charles O. Hucker, ed., Chinese Government in Ming Times: Seven Studies (New York, 1969), pp. 23-40.
144. Charles J. Halperin, Russia and the Golden Horde: The Mongol Impact on Medieval Russian History (London, 1987);
145. George Vernadsky, The Mongols and Russia, vol. 3 of A History of Russia (New Haven and London, 1953).
146. David O. Morgan, "The Mongol Armies in Persia," Der Islam 56 (1979), 81- 96;
147. Claude Cahen, "The Mongols and the Near East," in Robert Lee Wolff, ed., A History of the Crusades (2d ed.; 2 vols.; Philadelphia, 1969), vol. 2, pp. 715-34. See also John Andrew Boyle, ed., The Saljuq and Mongol Periods, vol. 5 of The Cambridge History of Iran (Cambridge, 1968).
148. James Chambers, The Devil's Horsemen: The Mongol Invasion of Europe (New York, 1979).
149. Reuven Amitai-Preiss, Mongols and Mamluks: The Mamluk-Ilkhnid War, 1260- 1281 (Cambridge, 1995);
150. John Masson Smith, Jr., "'Ayn Jalut: Mamluk Success or Mongol Failure?" Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 44 (1984), 307-45;
151. R. Stephen Humphreys, "The Emergence of the Mamluk Army," Studia Islamica 45-46 (1977), 67- 100, 147-82;
152. Hassanein Rabie, '"The Training of the Mamluk Faris," in Parry and Yapp, War, Technology and Society in the Middle East (note 58), pp. 153-63;
153. David Ayalon, "Preliminary Remarks on the Mamluk Military Institution in Islam," ibid., pp. 44-58;
154. Ayalon, "The Auxiliary Forces of the Mamluk Sultanate," Der Islam 65 (1988), 13-37.
155. Kyotsu Hori, '"The Economic and Political Effects of the Mongol Wars," in
156. John W. Hall and Jeffrey P. Mass, eds., Medieval Japan: Essays in Institutional History (New Haven, 1974; reprint Stanford, 1988), pp. 184-98;
157. William E. Henthomrn, Korea: The Mongol Invasions (Leiden, 1963).
158. Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, ed. Edwin Cannan from the 5th ed., London, 1789 (New York, 1937), p. 669.
159. Marshall G. S. Hodgson first emphasized the idea of gunpoweder empires; see The Gunpowder Empires and Modern Times, vol. 3 of The Venture of lslam: Conscience and History in a World Civilization (Chicago, 1974). More recent surveys include William H. McNeill, The Age of Gunpowder Empires, 1450-1800 (Washington, 1989);
160. Arnold Pacey, "Gunpowder Empires, 1450-1650," chap. 5 in Technology in World Civilization: A Thousand-Year History (Cambridge, Mass., 1990), pp. 73-91;
161. Stephen Morillo, "Guns and Government: A Comparative Study of Europe and Japan," Journal of World History 6 (Spring 1995), 75-106. For an up-to-date overview, see Jeremy Black, "Warfare in the Wider World, 1490-1700," chap. 1 in Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: Renaissance to Revolution, 1492-1792 (Cambridge, 1996), pp. 8-45.
162. Silah Ozbaran, "The Ottomans' Role in the Diffusion of Firearms and Military Technology in Asia and Africa in the Sixteenth Century," trans. Segil Akgiin, Revue international d'histoire militaire no. 67 (1988), 77-84; Godfrey Goodwin, "The Ottoman Armed Forces," chap. 4 in The Janissaries (London, 1994), pp. 65-108;
163. David C. Nicolle, Armies of the Ottoman Turks, 1300-1774 (Osprey Men-at-Arms Series 140; London, 1983);
164. Ozer Ergeng, "The Qualifications and Functions of Ottoman Central Soldiers," trans. Segil Akgtin, Revue internationale d'histoire militaire no. 67 (1988), 45-56;
165. Caroline Finkel, The Administration of Warfare: The Ottoman Military Campaigns in Hungary, 1593-1606 (Vienna, 1988).
166. Laurence Lockhart, "The Persian Army in the Safavi Period," Der Islam 34 (1959), 89-98;
167. Masashi Haneda, "The Evolution of the Safavid Royal Guard," trans. Rudi Mautthee, Iranian Studies 22 nos. 2-3 (1989), 57-85; Adel Allouche, The Origins and Development of the Ottoman-Safavid Conflict (906-962/1500-1555) (Berlin, 1983);
168. Rob- ert W. Olson, The Siege of Mosul and Ottoman-Persian Relations, 1718-1743: A Study of Rebellion in the Capital and War in the Provinces of the Ottoman Empire (Bloomington, 1975). See also Peter Jackson and Laurence Lockhart, eds., The Timurid and Safavid Periods, vol. 6 of The Cambridge History of lran (Cambridge, 1986).
169. M. K. Zaman, "The Use of Artillery in Mughal Warfare," Islamic Culture 57 (1983), 297-304;
170. S. P. Verma, "Fire-Arms in Sixteenth Century India (A Study Based on Mughal Paintings of Akbar's Period)," Islamic Culture 57 (1983), 63-69;
171. Douglas E. Streusand, "The Process of Expansion," chap. 3 in The Formation of the Mughal Empire (Delhi, 1989), pp. 51-81;
172. R. K. Phul, Armies of the Great Mughals, 1526-1707 (New Delhi, 1978). See also Stephen P. Blake, "The Patrimonial-Bureaucratic Empire of the Mughals," in Hermann Kulke, ed., The State in India, 1000-1700 (Delhi, 1995), pp. 278- 303;
173. John F. Richards, The Mughal Empire, vol. 5, pt. 1, of The New Cambridge History of India (New York, 1993).
174. Anthony Reid, "The Military Revolution," in Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450-1680, vol. 2, Expansion and Crisis (New Haven, 1993), pp. 219-33;
175. Reid, ed., Southeast Asia in the Early Modern Era: Trade, Power, and Belief (Ithaca, N.Y., 1993);
176. Donald G. McCloud, "The Military Subsystem and War," in System and Process in Southeast Asia: The Evolution of a Region (Boulder and London, 1986), pp. 101-105;
177. M. C. Ricklefs, War, Culture and Economy in Java, 1677-1726: Asian and European Imperialism in the Early Kartasura Period (Sydney, 1993).
178. John Whitney Hall, "The Bakuhan System," in Marius B. Jansen, ed., Warrior Rule in Japan (Cambridge, 1995), pp. 147-201; Naohiro Asao, "The Sixteenth-Century Unification," in John Whitney Hall and James L. McClain, eds., Early Modern Japan, vol. 4 of The Cambridge History ofJapan (Cambridge, 1991), pp. 40-95;
179. Michael P. Birt, "Samurai in Passage: Transformation of the Sixteenth-Century Kanto," Journal of Japa- nese Studies 11 (1985), 369-89;
180. Conrad Totman, Tokugawa Ieyasu, Shogun: A Biography (San Francisco, 1983);
181. Stephen R. Turnbull and Richard Hook, Samurai Armies, 1550- 1615 (Osprey Osprey Men-at-Arms Series 86; London, 1979).
182. Gustave Alef, The Origins of Muscovite Autocracy: The Age of Ivan III (Wiesbaden, 1986);
183. Christopher Bellamy, "The Firebird and the Bear: 600 Years of the Russian Artillery," History Today 32 (Sept. 1982), 16-20;
184. Thomas Esper, "Military Self- Sufficiency and Weapons Technology in Muscovite Russia," Slavic Review 28 (1969), 185-208;
185. Richard Hellie, "Warfare, Changing Military Technology, and the Evolution of Muscovite Society," in John A. Lynn, ed., Tools of War: Instruments, Ideas, and Institu- tions of Warfare, 1445-1871 (Urbana, 1990), pp. 74-99.
186. Edward L. Dreyer, "Military Origins of Ming China," in Frederick W. Mote and Denis Twitchett, eds., The Ming Dynasty, 1368-1644, vol. 7 of The Cambridge History of China (Cambridge, 1988), pp. 58-106; Albert Chan, The Glory and Fall of the Ming Dynasty (Norman, 1982);
187. C. J. Peers and David Sque, Medieval Chinese Armies, 1260-1520 (Osprey Men-at-Arms Series 251; London, 1992);
188. Lynn A. Struve, The Southern Ming, 1644-1662 (New Haven, 1984).
189. Joseph Needham et al., "Nautical Technology," chap. 29 in Civil Engineering and Nautics. vol. 4, part 3, of Science and Civilization in China (Cambridge, 1971), pp. 379-699, includes an account of the great voyages, pp. 486-535. See also Nora C. Buckley, "The Extraordinary Voyages of Admiral Cheng Ho," History Today 25 (1975), 462-71;
190. Louise Levathes, When China Ruled the Seas: The Treasure Fleet of the Dragon Throne, 1405-1433 (New York, 1994);
191. Shih-shan Henry Tsai, "Eunuchs and Ming Maritime Activities," chap. 7 in The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty (Albany, N.Y., 1996), pp. 141-64.
192. William H. McNeill, "The Gunpowder Revolution," Military History Quar- terly 3 (Autumn 1990), 8-17;
193. Thomas E. Arnold, "Fortifications and the Military Revolu- tion: The Gonzaga Experience, 1530-1630," in Clifford J. Rogers, ed., The Military Revolution Debate: Readings on the Military Transformation of Early Modern Europe (Boulder, 1995), pp. 201-26;
194. Christopher Duffy, Siege Warfare, vol. 1, The Fortress in the Early Modern World, 1494-1660 (London, 1979);
195. John A. Lynn, "The trace italienne and the Growth of Armies: The French Case," Journal ofMilitary History 55 (1991), 297- 330;
196. Simon Pepper and Nicholas Adams, Firearms and Fortifications: Military Architec- ture and Siege Warfare in Sixteenth-Century Siena (Chicago, 1986).
197. Simon Adams, "Tactics or Politics? 'The Military Revolution' and the Hapsburg Hegemony, 1525-1648," in Lynn, Tools of War (note 70), pp. 28-52; I. A. A. Thompson, War and Government in Habsburg Spain, 1560-1620 (London, 1976);
198. Geoffrey Parker, "Dynastic War, 1494-1660," in Parker, Cambridge Illustrated History of Warfare (note 35), pp. 146-63; Jeremy Black, "Warfare in Europe, 1490-1600," chap. 2 in Renaissance to Revolution (note 68), pp. 46-63.
199. The modern discussion of this topic has largely belonged to social scientists, beginning with Charles Tilly, ed., The Formation of National States in Western Europe (Princeton, 1975); see also Tilly's latest essay on this topic, Coercion, Capital, and European States, AD 990-1992 (Rev. ed.; Cambridge, Mass., 1992). Other recent works include Samuel Clark, State and Status: The Rise of the State and Aristocratic Power in Western Europe (Montreal, 1995);
200. Bruce D. Porter, War and the Rise of the State: The Military Foundations of Modern Politics (New York, 1994);
201. Brian M. Downing, The Military Revolution and Political Change: Origins of Democracy and Autocracy in Early Modern Europe (Princeton, 1992);
202. Karen A. Rasler and William R. Thompson, War and State Making: The Shaping of the Global Powers (Boston, 1989);
203. Peter T. Manicus, "The Legitimation of the Modem State: A Historical and Structural Account," in Ronald Cohen and Judith D. Toland, eds., State Formation and Political Legitimacy (Political Anthro- pology, vol. 6; New Brunswick and Oxford, 1988), pp. 173-97;
204. John A. Hall, "War and the Rise of the West," in Colin Creighton and Martin Shaw, eds., The Sociology of War and Peace (Dobbs Ferry, N.Y., 1987), pp. 37-53.
205. Michael Roberts, "The Military Revolution, 1560-1660," in Essays in Swedish History (Minneapolis, 1967), pp. 195-225. For a full, extensively annotated discussion, see Geoffrey Parker, The Military Revolution: Military Innovation and the Rise of the West, 1500-1800 (Cambridge, 1988). For contrasting views, see Bert S. Hall, Weapons and Warfare in Renaissance Europe (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997);
206. Rogers, The Military Revolution Debate (note 77). See also Janice E. Thomson, Merce- naries, Pirates, and Sovereigns: State-building and Extraterritorial Violence in Early Modern Europe (Princeton, 1994);
207. Jeremy Black, A Military Revolution? Military Change and European Society, 1550-1800 (Atlantic Highlands, N.J., 1991);
208. Gerhard Oestreich, "The Military Renascence," chap. 5 in Neostoicism and the Early Modern State, ed. Brigitta Oestreich and H. G. Koenigsberger, trans. David McLintock (Cambridge, 1982), pp. 76-89.
209. The classic study is Carlo Cipolla, Guns, Sails, and Empires: Technological Innovation and the Early Phases of European Expansion, 1400-1700 (New York, 1965). Recent studies include Roger C. Smith, Vanguard of Empire: Ships of Exploration in the Age of Columbus (New York, 1993);
210. Carla Rahn Phillips, Six Galleons for the King of Spain: Imperial Defense in the Early Seventeenth Century (Baltimore, 1986);
211. Frank Howard, Sailing Ships of War, 1400-1860 (New York, 1979).
212. Richard Hall, "Desperate Citadel," Military History Quarterly 6 (Summer 1994), 72-81; Malyn Newitt, "Portuguese Conquistadores in Eastern Africa," History Today 30 (August 1980), 19-24;
213. A. C. de C. M. Saunders, "The Depiction of Trade as War as a Reflection of Portuguese Ideology and Diplomatic Strategy in West Africa, 1441-1556," Canadian Journal of History 17 (1982), 219-34; John Vogt, Portuguese Rule on the Gold Coast, 1469-1682 (Athens, Ga., 1979).
214. John H. Elliott, "The Seizure of Overseas Territories by the European Powers," in Hans Pohl, ed., The European Discovery of the World and Its Economic Effects on Pre- Industrial Society, 1500-1800 (Stuttgart, 1990);
215. David B. Quinn and A. N. Ryan, England's Sea Empire, 1550-1642 (London, 1983);
216. Pierre-Yves Manguin, "Of Fortresses and Galleys: The 1568 Acehnese Siege of Melaka, after a Contemporary Bird's-Eye View," Modern Asian Studies 22 (1988), 607-28; F. David Bulbeck, "The Landscape of the Makassar War: A Review Article," Canberra Anthropology 13 (1990), 78-99; Pierre- Yves Manguin, "The Vanishing Jong: Insular Southeast Asian Fleets in Trade and War (Fifteenth to Seventeenth Centuries)," in Reid, Southeast Asia in the Early Modern Era (note 72).
217. Bruce P. Lenman, "The Transition to European Military Ascendancy in India, 1600-1800," in Lynn, Tools of War (note 70), pp. 100-30; I. Bruce Watson, "Fortifica- tions and the 'Idea' of Force in Early English East India Company Relations with India," Past & Present, no. 88 (August 1980), 70-87;
218. T. A. Heathcote, The Military in British India: The Development of British Land Forces in South Asia, 1600-1947 (Manchester, 1995);
219. Ahsan Jan Qaisar, The Indian Response to European Technology (AD 1498-1707) (New York, 1982). For later developments, see Donald Featherstone, Victorian Colonial Warfare: India, from the Conquest of Sind to the Indian Mutiny (London, 1992);
220. M. R. Kantak, The First Anglo-Maratha War, 1774-1783: A Military Study of the Major Battles (Bombay, 1993);
221. Byron Farwell, Armies of the Raj: From the Mutiny to Independence, 1858-1947 (New York, 1991);
222. Ian Knight and Richard Scollins, Queen Victoria's En- emies (3): India (Osprey Men-at-Arms Series 219; London, 1990).
223. Kenneth R. Andrews, Trade, Plunder, and Settlement: Maritime Enterprise and the Genesis of the British Empire, 1480-1630 (Cambridge, 1984);
224. Peter Padfield, Tide of Empires: Decisive Naval Compaigns in the Rise of the West (2 vols.; London, 1979-1982);
225. Urs Bitterli, Cultures in Conflict: Encounters between European and Non- European Cultures, 1492-1800, trans. Richie Robertson (Stanford, 1989);
226. John E. Wills, Jr., "Maritime Asia, 1500-1800: The Interactive Emergence of European Domination," American Historical Review 98 (1993), 83-105; Geoffrey Parker, "Joint Stock and Gunshot: European Conquest and Trade, 1500-1800," Military History Quarterly 4 (Summer 1992), 8-17;
227. P. J. Marshall, "Western Arms in Maritime Asia in the Early Phases of Expansion," Modern Asian Studies 14 (1980), 13-28.
228. Evgenii V. Anisimov, The Reforms of Peter the Great: Progress through Coercion in Russia, trans. John T. Alexander (Armonk, N.Y., 1993);
229. John L. H. Keep, Soldiers of the Tsar: Army and Society in Russia, 1462-1874 (New York, 1985);
230. Bruce W. Menning, "Russia and the West: The Problem of Eighteenth-Century Military Mod- els," in A. C. Cross, ed., Russia and the West in the Eighteenth Century (Newtonville, Mass., 1983), pp. 282-93;
231. Christopher Duffy, Russia's Military Way to the West: Origins and Nature of Russian Military Power, 1700-1800 (London, 1981). See also William C. Fuller, Jr., Strategy and Power in Russia, 1600-1914 (New York, 1992);
232. Brian M. Fagan, Kingdoms of Gold, Kingdoms of Jade: The Americas before Columbus (London, 1991);
233. Stuart J. Fiedel, "Chiefdoms and States: The Emergence of Complex Societies," chap. 6 in Prehistory of the Americas (Cambridge, 1987), pp. 223- 339;
234. Manuel Lucena Salmoral, "Warriors and Priests," in America 1492: Portrait of a Continent 500 Years Ago (New York, 1990), pp. 193-223; Robert L. Carneiro, "Point Counterpoint: Ecology and Ideology in the Development of New World Civilizations," in Arthur A. Demarest and Geoffrey Conrad, eds., Ideology and Pre-Columbian Civiliza- tions (Santa Fe, 1992), pp. 175-203.
235. The standard account is now Ross Hassig, War and Society in Ancient Mesoamerica (Berkeley, 1992). See also Diane Z. Chase and Arlen F. Chase, eds., Mesoamerican Elites: An Archaeological Assessment (Norman, 1992);
236. John M. D. Pohl and Angus McBride, Aztec, Mixtec and Zapotec Armies (Osprey Men-at-Arms Series 239; London, 1991).
237. Walter Alva and Christopher B. Donnan, "Tales from a Peruvian Crypt," Natural History 103 (May 1994), 26-35; Richard L. Burger, Chavin and the Origins of Andean Civilization (New York, 1992);
238. Jonathan Haas et al., eds., The Origins and Development of the Andean State (Cambridge, 1987);
239. Craig Morris and Adriana von Hagen, The Inka Empire and Its Andean Origins (New York, 1993);
240. Michael E. Moseley, The Incas and Their Ancestors: The Archaeology ofPeru (New York, 1992);
241. Katharina J. Schreiber, Wari Imperialism in Middle Horizon Peru (Ann Arbor, 1992).
242. The idea of peaceful Mayan civilization prevailed into the 1960s, most forcefully argued by the then-dean of Mayanists, J. Eric S. Thompson; see, e.g., The Rise and Fall of Maya Civilization (2nd ed.; Norman, Okla., 1966). For a discussion the dramatic change in understanding duing the past three decades, see Jeremy A. Sabloff The New Archaeology and the Ancient Maya (New York, 1990), especially the section on "The Evidence of Warfare," pp. 84-91; see also articles by Diane Z. Chase, David I. Freidel, Joyce Marcus, Arthur G. Miller, Mary Ellen Miller, Prudence M. Rice, David Stuart, and David Webster in Sabloff and John S. Henderson, eds., Lowland Maya Civilization in the Eighth Century AD (Washington, 1993);
243. and John M. Weeks, Maya Civilization, Research Guides to Ancient Civilizations 1 (New York and London, 1993). The decipherment of Mayan writing contrib- uted greatly to this revolution; see Linda Schele and Mary Ellen Miller, "Warfare and Captive Sacrifice," chap. 5 in The Blood of Kings: Dynasty and Ritual in Maya Art (New York and Fort Worth, 1986);
244. Joyce Marcus, "Raiding and Warfare," chap. 11 inMesoamerican Writing Systems: Propaganda, Myth, and History in Four Ancient Civilizations (Princeton, 1992), pp. 353-434; Michael D. Coe, Breaking the Maya Code (New York, 1992).
245. Ross Hassig, Aztec Warfare: Imperial Expansion and Political Control (Norman, 1988);
246. Hassig, "Aztec Flower War," Military History Quarterly 9 (Autumn 1996), 8-20;
247. Inga Clendinnen, "Warriors, Priests and Merchants," chap. 4 in Aztecs.: An Interpretation (Cambridge, 1991), pp. 111-40;
248. David Carrasco, "The Religion of the Aztecs: Ways of the Warrior, Words of the Sage," chap. 3 in Religions of Mesoamerica: Cosmovision and Ceremonial Centers (San Francisco, 1990), pp. 58-91;
249. Richard F. Townsend, "The Warriors," in The Aztecs (London, 1992), pp. 195-200.
250. Alan L. Kolata, "Understanding Tiwanaku: Conquest, Colonization and Clientage in the South-Central Andes," in Don S. Rice, ed., Latin American Horizons (Washington, 1992);
251. John Victor Murra, "The Expansion of the Inka State: Armies, War, and Rebel- lions," in Murra et al., eds., Anthropological History of Andean Polities (Cambridge and Paris, 1986), pp. 49-58;
252. Thomas C. Patterson, The Inca Empire: The Formation and Disintegration of a Pre-Capitalist State (New York and Oxford, 1991).
253. Ross Hassig, Mexico and the Spanish Conquest (London and New York, 1994);
254. Inga Clendinnen, "'Fierce and Unnatural Cruelty': Cort6s and the Conquest of Mexico," in Stephen Greenblatt, ed., New World Encounters (Berkeley, 1993), pp. 12-47; Jane Maclaren Walsh and Yoko Sugiura, "The Demise of the Fifth Sun," in Herman J. Viola and Carolyn Margolis, eds., Seeds of Change: A Quincentennial Commemoration (Wash- ington, 1991), pp. 17-41.
255. John F. Guilmartin, Jr., "The Cutting Edge: An Analysis of the Spanish Inva- sion and Overthrow of the Inca Empire, 1532-1539," in Kenneth J. Andrien and Rolena Adorno, eds., Transatlantic Encounters: Europeans and Andeans in the Sixteenth Cen- tury (Berkeley, 1991). More generally, see Patricia Seed, "Conquest of the Americas, 1500-1650," in Parker, Cambridge Illustrated History of Warfare (note 35), pp. 132-45;
256. Alistair Hennessy, "The Nature of the Conquest and the Conquistadores," in Warwick Bray, ed., The Meeting of Two Worlds: Europe and the Americas, 1492-1650 (Oxford, 1993), pp. 5-36; Terence Wise and Angus McBride, The Conquistadores (Osprey Men- at-Arms Series 101; London, 1980).
257. James Belich, The New Zealand Wars and the Victorian Interpretation of Racial Conflict (Auckland, 1986);
258. Margaret Rodman and Matthew Cooper, eds., The Pacification of Melanesia (Ann Arbor, 1979);
259. Brian M. Fagan, Clash of Cultures (New York, 1984).
260. Bray, Meeting of Two Worlds (note 94), articles by Francis Frei Berdan, Don Brothwell, and Linda A. Newson; Viola and Margolis, Seeds of Change (note 93), articles by Alfred W. Crosby, John W. Verano and Douglas H. Ubelaker; David E. Stannard, American Holocaust: Columbus and the Conquest of the New World (New York, 1992);
261. Stannard, Before the Horror: The Population of Hawai'i on the Eve of Western Contact (Honolulu, 1989);
262. David E. Stannard, "Disease and Infertility: A New Look at the Demographic Collapse of Native Populations in the Wake of Western Contract," Journal of American Studies 24 (Dec. 1990), 325-50;
263. O. A. Bushnell, The Gifts of Civilization: Germs and Genocide in Hawai'i (Honolulu, 1993).
264. Ian K. Steele, Warpaths: Invasions of North America (New York, 1994);
265. Hans Koning, The Conquest of America: How the Indian Nations Lost Their Continent (New York, 1993);
266. Jerald T. Milanich, Florida Indians and the Invasion from Europe (Gainesville, 1995).
267. Andrew J. Knaut, The Pueblo Revolt of 1680: Conquest and Resistance in Seventeenth-Century New Mexico (Norman, 1995);
268. Roberto Mario Salm6n, Indian Re- volt in Northern New Spain: A Synthesis of Resistance (1680-1786) (Lanham, Md., 1991);
269. Adam J. Hirsch, "The Collision of Military Cultures in Seventeenth-Century New En- gland," Journal of American History 74 (1988), 1187-1212; Tkaczuk and Vivian, Cul- tures in Conflict (note 5);
270. Gregory Evans Dowd, A Spirited Resistance: The North American Indian Struggle for Unity, 1745-1815 (Baltimore, 1991);
271. Alan Axelrod, Chronicle of the Indian Wars: From Colonial Times to Wounded Knee (New York, 1993).
272. Patrick Mitchell Malone, The Skulking Way of War: Technology and Tactics among the Indians of New England (Lanham, Md., 1991);
273. Brian J. Given, "The Iroquois Wars and Native Firearms," in Bruce Alden Cox, ed., Native People, Native Lands: Canadian Indians, Inuit and Metis (Ottawa, 1987), pp. 3-13;
274. Donald E. Worcester and Thomas F. Schilz, "The Spread of Firearms among the Indians of the Anglo-French Frontiers," American Indian Quarterly 8 (1984), 103-15; Schilz and Worcester, "The Spread of Firearms among the Indian Tribes on the Northern Frontier of New Spain," American Indian Quarterly 11 (1987), 1-10.
275. The classic study is Jack Goody, Technology, Tradition and the State in Africa (Oxford, 1971; reprint Cambridge, 1980), especially chap. 5, "Polity and the Means of Destruction." More recent studies include Stephen P. Reyna, Wars without End: The Political Economy of a Precolonial African State (Hanover, N.H., 1990);
276. Robert S. Smith, Warfare and Diplomacy in Pre-Colonial West Africa (2d ed.; Madison, 1989);
277. Richard Pankhurst, "Changing Features of Social Life: The Coming and Increasing Diffusion of Fire-Arms," pt. 4, chap. 1, in A Social History of Ethiopia: The Northern and Central Highlands from Early Medieval Times to the Rise of Emperor Tiwodros II (Addis Ababa, 1990; reprint Trenton, N.J., 1992), pp. 277-88. See also Christopher Spring, African Arms and Armor (Washington, 1993).
278. Frederic Wakeman, Jr., The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-Century China (2 vols.; Berkeley, 1985);
279. Joanne Waley- Cohen, "China and Western Technology in the Late Eighteenth Century," American Historical Review 98 (1993), 1525-44;
280. Geoffrey Parker, "Taking up the Gun," Military History Quarterly 1 (Summer 1989), 88-101;
281. Stewart Gordon, Marathas, Marauders, and State Formation in Eighteenth-Century India (Delhi, 1994);
282. Kantak, The First Anglo- Maratha War (note 84);
283. Pradeep Barua, "Military Developments in India, 1750-1850," Journal of Military History 58 (1994), 599-616.
284. Daniel R. Headrick, The Tools of Empire: Technology and European Imperial- ism in the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1981);
285. Headrick, The Tentacles of Progress: Technology Transfer in the Age of Imperialism, 1850-1940 (New York, 1988);
286. Maurice Pearton, The Knowledgeable State: Diplomacy, War and Technology since 1830 (Lon- don, 1982).
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