Evolution of The Camera

Newspaper Research Journal, 2006

While digital cameras are used on most assignments and more images are shot, a lower proportion of those images are archived compared to images shot with film cameras in years past. __________________________________________ The invention of photography enabled people to record the present and in so doing preserve it for future generations. This photographic record rapidly became the primary visual history, replacing painting, drawing and various forms of printmaking. Indeed, many famous etchings in earlier newspapers were based upon photographs because of the technical inability of newspapers to integrate photography. It took more than 50 years, from the announcement of the invention of photography in 1839 to the invention of the halftone process in about 1880, for photographs to be directly incorporated into newspapers and magazines. Canadian photographer J. Fortune Nott described in 1891 the changes influenced by press photography: One of the most noticeable characteristics of the past decade, has been the constantly increasing demand for illustrations that pictorially record events that have a social or historical importance. 1 Almost 40 years later, the business manager of the New York Times, Louis Wiley, predicted that future generations would value the work of news photographers:

Photoresearcher, 2016

"Kim Timby and Nicolas Le Guern demonstrate in their articles that the idea of patenting, the law and legal concerns inflect the history of photography consistently, whether in legal disputes about stereos or in the patenting of innovations in photographic research. Progression to the market, Le Guern demonstrates, is not merely a matter of individual (or group) genius, but of a number of factors ranging from political events and individual nationality to geographic location. To assert this means that we need to reconsider the way we acknowledge and write histories about photographic ‘invention’ not only in the first half of the nineteenth century, but throughout the twentieth and into the twenty-first centuries."

1999

Williams Watch Series-Jeannie Oakes wws-rr012-1002 _____________________________________ UCLA/IDEA www.ucla-idea.org 1 Multi-track, year-round education, which began as a stopgap effort to cope with severe overcrowding, has only exacerbated the inequities between and among California's schools. (See Duke Helfand, Year-Round Discontent at Hollywood High, L.A. Times, Nov. 20, 2000, at A1 (although a multi-track calendar was introduced in LAUSD at a single school about 25 years ago as "a temporary fix for overcrowding," LAUSD now operates more multi-track schools than New York, Chicago, Philadelphia, Miami, and Houston combined).) Students who attend schools operating on the multi-track, year-round calendar known as Concept 6 suffer several clear disadvantages as compared to students at schools on traditional calendars: (1) overcrowded and large schools; (2) truncated and lost instructional time; (3) limited access to courses and specialized programs; (4) ill-timed breaks and correspondingly limited access to extracurricular activities and enrichment programs; and (5) poorer academic performance. In light of its disadvantages, it is hardly surprising that Delaine Eastin, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, should declare: "I would love to get rid of Concept 6." (Julie Z. Giese, State superintendent makes stop at Lodi Middle School, Lodi News-Sentinel, Oct. 26, 2001.) Nor is it surprising that the State Master Plan for Education should include the recommendation that the State "move aggressively to eliminate the use of multi-track year-round schedules that result in fewer calendar days of instruction." Joint Committee, 2002 Master Plan for Education, Summary of Recommendations, Recommendation 14.2. The only school calendar in use today that fits this description is the Concept 6 calendar. Likewise, busing seeks to address the negative effects of overcrowding, but creates inequities of its own. Students who are bused to school due to overcrowding suffer several clear disadvantages as compared to students who attend a neighborhood school: (1) reduced parental involvement; (2) incentive to skip kindergarten; (3) limited access to after-school programs; and (4) poorer academic performance. Few districts rely as heavily on busing to reduce overcrowding as the Los Angeles Unified School District ("LAUSD"), which buses students from schools that overflow their capacities even after they are put on multi-track calendars. 1 In 1 I focus on LAUSD because public information, largely in the form of press reports, is more readily available regarding its busing program than is the case for other districts. I note, however, that LAUSD appears to have removed from its website a document prepared by its School Reform Office, which described the number of district students bused due to overcrowding, the length and duration of their bus trips, and the results of studies assessing the achievement of students bused to school. (LAUSD School Reform Office, Facilities Task Force, http://www.lausd.k12.ca.us/lausd/offices/reform/school_fac.html (last visited 5/10/02).) Other districts do not appear to post, or to have posted, such information. The Long Beach Unified School District also operates a program to bus students due to overcrowding. (Declaration of Thierry Kolpin ("Kolpin Decl."), dated December 21, 2001, at ¶ 3 ("During the time I worked there, at least 600 kids were bused away from Lincoln [Elementary] each year because the school had no room for the students. Lincoln is one of many elementary schools in inner city Long Beach that is considered a 'sending' school. That means Lincoln cannot take any more students, Williams Watch Series-Jeannie Oakes wws-rr012-1002 _____________________________________ UCLA/IDEA www.ucla-idea.org 2 light of the disadvantages of multi-tracking and of busing students to distant neighborhoods, it is not surprising that the main goal of LAUSD's construction program is, and has been for some time, to build enough schools to return all its students to neighborhood schools operating on traditional calendars. 2 Indeed, in determining the priorities for its construction program, LAUSD has applied two criteria: "number of students that would be 'capped out' (not able to attend their resident school on a multi-track calendar) at peak year based on current demographics, and the number of years the school had been on multi-track calendar (or, highest need/longest harm.

New Formations 62, 2007

This paper examines the history and meanings of Polaroid, or ‘one-step’ photography at the point of its obsolescence. It asks in what ways technological change relates to the fields of society and culture and argues that Polaroid instant photography can be fruitfully analysed to shed light on more recent developments in the digital image, which is also marked by its instantaneity. Three key properties of Polaroid photography are identified – its speed, the absence of a darkroom, and the singularity of the image – and considered in terms of the Bataillean concept of intimacy.