ORQUESTRA LLISTA

nea, 2011

INTRODUCTION Among the fundamental elements that allow us to recognize a flautist without seeing him are sound quality, vibrato, and the way he uses them: these elements are a bit like a digital fingerprint that differentiates and characterizes him as an unique interpreter. There has been a constant historical evolution trying to describe the flute vibrato in its uses and functions 1 , but both in the ancient treatises and in the most current research works, the emphasis has been placed on aesthetic and stylistic issues at the expense of a more objective analysis of vibrato production and its effects. In what form does the vibrato affect the sound and timbre of the flute? We sought an answer in the scientific literature on the subject, trying to give our contribution to obtain a more complete model of representation of vibrato. As methodological foundation of our research we have used two programs for the analysis of acoustic sound parameters: Spectra-Pro and an Algorithm for the measurement of vibrato fluctuations developed by VIEIRA and SILVA, of the Physics and Electronics Departments of UFMG, Belo Horizonte, Brazil 2. Normally an instrument teacher educates the students to listen and imitate a reference sound, (his own and / or that of famous colleagues, live or in recording), to bring them closer to the canons of "beauty" 3 defined by his own school of thought. When the imitatio maiorum does not lead to the desired improvements, the teacher integrates his indications focusing on explanations and exercises aimed at the body awareness of certain aspects closely related to sound production and control, such as (in the case of wind instruments and singing): alterations of the oral cavity, position of tongue, chin and lips, air velocity, support, resonance points etc. This happens in most cases through the use of metaphors (i.e. imagine to have a hot potato in your mouth) and sometimes through explanations of a more physiological flavor (an illustrious and joking example of both ways, the "Wasabi Technic" by E. Pahud 4). The method we describe introduces a third possibility, complementary to the previous ones, which is to see the sound in real time. This way we try to make available to the students an extra weapon to grasp the correlation between physical sensations and timbral changes in the sound they produce. Allowing to visualize the changes caused by the vibrato in our instrument's tone, this approach helps us to improve its understanding and management, contributing to broaden our tonal and expressive resources. We will do our best to ensure that the scientific language gets the least boring possible, but, being aware that the subject requires to be treated with an appropriate vocabulary, we apologize a priori, relying on the patience and curiosity of the readers.

he articulation of fast passages was a subject of great concern and much labour for flautists in the 18 th , and indeed the 19 th centuries. In the sources on flute playing, theorists employed a variety of different syllables when they describe double tonguing, and this is a subject with which much of this article will be concerned. Additionally, some performers used single tonguing for fast passages, and they also used legato slurs, depending upon the prevailing style. Since the vowels imagined by a player do not alter the articulation, 1 it is reasonable to exclude them when discussing different techniques of articulation, and this then enables us to recognise that different authors used various spellings for the same double tonguing techniques. Three pairings of sounds were generally employed. Firstly, double tonguing using d-g or t-k: this describes a technique whereby the player alternates between a dental consonant (d or t) on the strong beat, followed by a plosive (g or k) on the weak beat. In the sources, the k sound is sometimes spelt as c, ch or q. Secondly, when the player alternates between a harder dental consonant (d or t) and a softer one (r or d), this is referred to as double tonguing using d-r or t-d. Here, the r is pronounced without rolling it, using a single movement of the tongue. Thirdly, in double tonguing using d-dl or t-tl, the player starts the strong beat with d or t followed by l, dl, or tl on the weak beat. Here, l replaces the (imagined) vowel: for the weak beat, the tip of the tongue springs back to the palate and remains there. To produce a sound for the next strong beat, the tip of the tongue simply springs down again. 2 This article is based on the second part of my doctoral dissertation, which defines and discusses the articulation techniques employed for fast flute passages during the 18 th and 19 th centuries. 3 Here my focus is on the 18 th century; for a discussion of 19 th-century techniques, I refer to my dissertation. Similarly, for more information about the flute treatises quoted in this article and their authors, readers can consult Appendix 1 in my dissertation. Double tonguing using d-r / t-d in the early 18 th century During the early decades of the 18 th century, moderately fast passages were articulated with d or t, alternating with r. The consonant r was usually reserved for the strong beat, except that beginning a phrase with r was not recommended. 4 In his treatise on playing the oboe, recorder and flageolet (1700), Jean Pierre Freillon-Poncein recommends alternating between t and r when playing at slow and moderate speeds, and using r on the stronger beats. 5 He continues, 'and when the metre is very fast, they must be played tu ru tu ru, with tu on the following note' (see illus.1, which is written in soprano clef). 6 T

firts published in The Consort, the Journal of the Dolmetsch foundation, 2011

The articulation of fast passages was a subject of great concern and much labour for flautists in the 18 th , and indeed the 19 th centuries. In the sources on flute playing, theorists employed a variety of different consonants when they describe double tonguing, and this is a subject with which much of this article will be concerned. Additionally, some performers used single tonguing for fast passages, and they also used legato slurs, depending upon the prevailing style. Since the vowels imagined by a player do not alter the articulation, since they are not sounded, 1 it is reasonable to exclude them when discussing different techniques of articulation, and this then enables us to recognise that different authors used various spellings for the same double tonguing techniques. Three pairings of sounds were generally employed. Firstly, double tonguing using d-g or t-k: this describes a technique whereby the player alternates between a dental consonant (d or t) on the strong beat, followed by a plosive (g or k) on the weak beat. In the sources, the k sound is sometimes spelt as c, ch or q. Secondly, when the player alternates between a harder dental consonant (d or t) and a softer one (r or d), this is referred to as double tonguing using d-r or t-d. Here, the r is pronounced without rolling it, using a single movement of the tongue. Thirdly, in double tonguing using d-dl or t-tl, the player starts the strong beat with d or t followed by l, dl, or tl on the weak beat. Here, l replaces the (imagined) vowel: for the weak beat, the tip of the tongue springs back to the palate and remains there. To produce a sound for the next strong beat, the tip of the tongue simply springs down again. This article is based on the second part of my doctoral dissertation, which defines and discusses the articulation techniques employed for fast flute passages during the 18 th and 19 th centuries. 2 Here my focus is on the 18 th century, with a brief treatment of the early part of the 19 th century, before performers came to prefer double tonguing using d-g or t-k in detached passages. For a more thorough discussion of this later development, I refer to my dissertation. Similarly, for more information about the flute treatises quoted in this article and their authors, readers can consult Appendix 1 in my dissertation. Double tonguing using d-r / t-d in the early 18 th century During the early decades of the 18 th century, moderately fast passages were articulated with d or t, alternating with r. The consonant r was usually reserved for the strong beat, except that beginning a phrase with r was not recommended. 3 In his treatise on playing the oboe, recorder and flageolet (1700), Jean Pierre Freillon-Poncein recommends alternating between t and r when playing at slow and moderate speeds, and using r on the stronger beats. 4 He continues, 'and when the metre is very fast, they must be played tu ru tu ru, with tu on the following note' (see illus.1, which is written in soprano clef). 5 Illus.1. Freillon-Poncein, Veritable manière d'apprendre à jouer en perfection, 27. If the music is very fast, alternating between t or d and r creates what is technically known as double tonguing. In the time of Freillon-Poncein, woodwind players usually played more than one instrument, and so it is reasonable to believe that the articulation which he describes when he considers the oboe, recorder and flageolet was also applied to the flute.

2008

During the 18 th and 19 th centuries, vibrato as well as the articulation of fast passages was often not indicated in the musical scores, but was left to the players' discretion within prevailing practice. A finger-vibrato technique that this study names the flattement technique was the most recommended vibrato technique in Western classical music throughout the 18 th century. Another finger-vibrato technique used was called martellement or Schwebungen. During the first half of the 19 th century the flattement technique coexisted on equal terms with chest vibrato, which was during most of the period under investigation slow and controlled, typically four waves on a long note. The syllables and spellings documented for double-tonguing on the flute can be categorized in three techniques, d-g/t-k, d-r/t-d and d-l/t-tl, where d-g, d-r and d-l represent softer nuances. During the 18 th and first half of the 19 th century, d-l/t-tl was the most common double-tonguing technique in England and Germany, whereas in France it was not much used. Legato could be applied when not indicated; during the late 18 th century and the first half of the 19 th century the articulation patterns paired slurs and two slurred, two tipped were commonly recommended. In France, d-g/t-k was the dominating double-tonguing from the late 18 th century and on, and the embracing of this technique also in Germany and England in the second half of the 19 th century reflects a transition from the 18 th century ideal of a rounder execution of an articulated fast passage towards a shorter staccato ideal. The playing techniques recommended in the sources have been tested and evaluated in musical practice by the author. For a more complete understanding of the problem areas, sounding examples from concerts and recordings are integrated in the dissertation. VII Contents contents of the cd preface acknowledgements conventions X 2.12.5 Legato-playing and relating to indicated articulation 2.13 Germany, second half of the 19 th century 2.13.1 Double-tonguing with d-g/t-k 2.13.2 Double-tonguing with d-l/t-tl 2.13.3 Double-tonguing with d-r/t-d 2.13.4 Single-tonguing 2.13.5 Legato-playing and relating to indicated articulation 2.14 France, second half of the 19 th century 2.14.1 Double-tonguing with d-g/t-k and single-tonguing 2.14.2 Double-tonguing with d-l/t-tl and d-r/t-d 2.14.3 Legato-playing and relating to indicated articulation 2.15 Sweden, second half of the 19 th century 2.15.1 Double-tonguing with d-g/t-k and d-r/t-d 2.15.1.1 Reversed double-tonguing 2.15.1.2 Triplets 2.15.2 Double-tonguing with d-l/t-tl 2.15.3 Single-tonguing 2.16 Advice for practicing double-tonguing 2.17 The vowels 2.18 Conclusions on the articulation of fast passages in the 18 th and 19 th centuries VI. Conclusion Appendices 1-6 References Index of names XI XII XV XVI Preface Having played the recorder with my family from a very early age, the flute from the age of ten and the baroque flute from the age of 15, I developed a great affection for all three of these instruments. Over time, however, I grew consistently more and more enchanted with the baroque flute, this lovely instrument, with its responsive and yet profound repertoire, and from the age of 22, it has been the object of my main focus. From the beginning of my baroque flute playing, studying Quantz's Versuch was an integrated part of my self-tuition; later I found it inspiring and enlightening to study the treatises of an increasing number of other flautists. Performing on period instruments indicates an historical awareness, and brings with it an obligation not to neglect the considerable amount of information on playing techniques and performance practice that is provided in the historical material. However, playing music on a professional level is a time-consuming activity, and the historical material available has grown considerably during the last 50 years, making it very difficult to study all the relevant material and still get enough time for practising and performing. I am therefore glad to present a study that covers a small part of this field, and hope that future studies will cover other areas. The vibrato was, during most of the period investigated, an ornament used to adorn and embellish notes, and to enhance the expression. One of the names that was used for it was "sweetenings". The articulation of fast passages deals with the technical and musical solutions used to execute a fast passage. Sometimes these solutions were, like the use of vibrato, subjected to fierce discussion. An example of this is the debate in the early 19 th century England, where the dominating doubletonguing technique was called "Babylonish gabble" by its antagonists. introduction introduction ing, which coincides roughly with the beginning of gramophone recordings and the turn of the 19 th century. At that time, a practice in which double-tonguing with d-g/t-k dominates and most legato slurs are indicated in the score was already established. Flutes of types that were used in this period were accessible to me and I am trained in playing on them. Two important assumptions for research in performance practice are that a playing technique can be learned from written instructions in the source material, and that the documentation reflects actual practice to a reasonable level. The focus on France, Germany and England reflects the documentation of flute playing activity in Western Europe during the 18 th and 19 th centuries: in the early 18 th century, Western flute playing was a predominantly French phenomenon, while around the middle of the century a largely uniform style of playing and composing had become common in most of Western Europe. Later in the 18 th century the French and German styles of flute playing diverged, and in the 19 th century differences in playing style in England, France and Germany had developed, which were to remain influential through the 19 th century and beyond.

During the 18th and 19th centuries, vibrato as well as the articulation of fast passages was often not indicated in the musical scores, but was left to the players’ discre- tion within prevailing practice. A finger-vibrato technique that this study names the flattement technique was the most recommended vibrato technique in Western classical music throughout the 18th century. Another finger-vibrato technique used was called martellement or Schwebungen. During the first half of the 19th century the flattement technique coexisted on equal terms with chest vibrato, which was during most of the period under investigation slow and controlled, typically four waves on a long note. The syllables and spellings documented for double-tonguing on the flute can be categorized in three techniques, d-g/t-k, d-r/t-d and d-l/t-tl, where d-g, d-r and d-l represent softer nuances. During the 18th and first half of the 19th century, d-l/t-tl was the most common double-tonguing technique in England and Germany, whereas in France it was not much used. Legato could be applied when not indicated; during the late 18th century and the first half of the 19th century the articulation patterns paired slurs and two slurred, two tipped were commonly recommended. In France, d-g/t-k was the dominating double-tonguing from the late 18th century and on, and the embracing of this technique also in Germany and England in the second half of the 19th century reflects a transition from the 18th century ideal of a rounder execution of an articulated fast passage towards a shorter staccato ideal. The playing techniques recommended in the sources have been tested and eva- luated in musical practice by the author. For a more complete understanding of the problem areas, sounding examples from concerts and recordings are integrated in the dissertation.