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A review of natural hydrofractures in rocks

Profile image of ISAAC NAAMANISAAC NAAMAN

Geological Magazine

https://doi.org/10.1017/S0016756822001042
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26 pages

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Abstract

Hydrofractures, or hydraulic fractures, are fractures where a significantly elevated fluid pressure played a role in their formation. Natural hydrofractures are abundant in rocks and are often preserved as magmatic dykes or sills, and mineral-filled fractures or mineral veins. However, we focus on the formation and evolution of non-igneous hydrofractures. Here we review the basic theory of the role of fluid pressure in rock failure, showing that both Terzaghi’s and Biot’s theories can be reconciled if the appropriate boundary conditions are considered. We next discuss the propagation of hydrofractures after initial failure, where networks of hydrofractures may form or hydrofractures may ascend through the crust as mobile hydrofractures. As fractures can form as a result of both tectonic stresses and an elevated fluid pressure, we address the question of how to ascertain whether a fracture is a hydrofracture. We argue that extensional or dilational fractures that formed below c. 2–3 ...

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The relationships between deformation and fluid flow have been investigated in the Paleozoic basement of an isolated horst of the Catalan Coastal Ranges. A structural, petrological and geochemical study has been performed in a complex fracture network that resulted from a long-lived tectonic history (from Carboniferous to Miocene). Nine fracture types, developed from a ductile regime in the greenschist facies to a shallow brittle regime, have been characterized in order to establish P, T and fluid compositions during the evolution of the horst. Syn-cleavage and late-cleavage quartz veins (qtz1-chl1±mu and late qtz2-chl2-dol1) formed during the Hercynian ductile deformation. These minerals precipitated from metamorphic fluids, possibly evolved from seawater, at temperatures between 240 and 340ºC. En-echelon albite vein arrays (ab-qtz3-chl3±ti-an) and NE-SW normal faults generating breccias mark the change from ductile to brittle, from compression to extension and from a closed to an open hydrologic regime. This paragenesis precipitated from the mixing of metamorphic and magmatic fluids at temperatures 2 between 180 and 290ºC during the early Permian extension. Dolomite veins (dol2-chl4-qtz4), precipitated at 210-280ºC from the mixing of previous fluids with hypersaline oxidizing external brines, possibly during the late stage of the early Permian extension. Reverse faults and calcite veins (Cc1-ba) formed either during the Paleogene compression or during the Langhian to early Serravallian minor compression. Calcite and barite precipitated from meteoric or marine waters in an open hydrological system at temperatures below 50ºC. The Miocene extension is represented by NE-SW normal faults with fault gouges and NNW-SSE normal faults cemented by calcite 2 that precipitated at temperatures below 50ºC from meteoric fluids in an open basin-scale hydrological system. The studied horst was part of a relay zone between two segments of the NNW-SE Llobregat fault during the early Permian, explaining the high fracture density and the fast upflowing of hydrothermal fluids at that time, thus controlling the development of albite veins exclusively in this area.

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A likely-universal model of fracture density and scaling justified by both data and theory. Consequences for crustal hydro-mechanics
Philippe Davy

2011

1] We argue that most fracture systems are spatially organized according to two main regimes: a "dilute" regime for the smallest fractures, where they can grow independently of each other, and a "dense" regime for which the density distribution is controlled by the mechanical interactions between fractures. We derive a density distribution for the dense regime by acknowledging that, statistically, fractures do not cross a larger one. This very crude rule, which expresses the inhibiting role of large fractures against smaller ones but not the reverse, actually appears be a very strong control on the eventual fracture density distribution since it results in a self-similar distribution whose exponents and density term are fully determined by the fractal dimension D and a dimensionless parameter g that encompasses the details of fracture correlations and orientations. The range of values for D and g appears to be extremely limited, which makes this model quite universal. This theory is supported by quantitative data on either fault or joint networks. The transition between the dilute and dense regimes occurs at about a few tenths of a kilometer for faults systems and a few meters for joints. This remarkable difference between both processes is likely due to a large-scale control (localization) of the fracture growth for faulting that does not exist for jointing. Finally, we discuss the consequences of this model on the flow properties and show that these networks are in a critical state, with a large number of nodes carrying a large amount of flow. Citation: Davy, P., R. Le Goc, C. Darcel, O. Bour, J. R. de Dreuzy, and R. Munier (2010), A likely universal model of fracture scaling and its consequence for crustal hydromechanics,

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Development, impact and longevity of fractures in magmatic, volcanic and geothermal systems
Anthony Lamur

2018

The migration of fluids in the Earth’s crust embodies the last stage of the internal heat release of our planet. Either spectacularly expressed at the surface through volcanic activity, or more subtly as internal hydrothermal circulation, this phenomenon involves the upwards motion of fluids and magmas that contribute to more efficient heat transfer. On one hand, volcanic eruptions result from the movement of buoyant magmatic liquids towards the surface. On their way up, these magmas cool down, crystallise and upon decompression, build up an internal pressure that dictate the eruptive style: Effusive when the internal pressure is released as it builds up; explosive when the internal pressure accumulates until it is able to fracture the magma. In nature, the shift from effusive to explosive activity is often periodic, reflecting cycles of pressure accumulation and relaxation in the conduit. On the other hand, hydrothermal circulation results from the infiltration of water, of meteori...

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