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Pandering to glory: Sheldon jackson's path to alaska

Profile image of Jordan CraddickJordan Craddick

2013

Abstract

Presbyterian missionary Sheldon Jackson is a celebrated figure in Alaska history. He is known predominantly for his efforts facilitating the establishment of public schools for Alaska Native people during the late nineteenth century. Jackson's methods have been historically overlooked as being reform-minded initiatives characteristic of Indian assimilation. As a result, historians have concluded that Jackson was a humanitarian with benevolent intentions. Unfortunately, such assessments ignore Jackson's educational platform, which was built upon fictitious slander against indigenous people and the manipulation of Christian women. In addition to speaking tours, Jackson published many editorials, articles, and books alleging that Alaska Native people were barbarous monsters. The propaganda Jackson employed in Alaska was no different from the propaganda he used against Mormons and Native Americans. However, Jackson was maligned for his strategy in the continental United States, whereas in Alaska he was celebrated as a reformer and an authority figure due to ignorance about the northern territory. Alaska captured the public imagination, and Jackson lied about Alaska Native culture for the remainder of his career in order to maintain his Christian enterprise.

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References (222)

  1. After Jackson's superiors complained about his unauthorized use of the title "Superintendent," he responded by stating that his was saving them "from $750 to $1,000 a year in the way of passes" since railroad agencies provided "free passes" to Superintendents. Sheldon Jackson to Dear Brother, February 14, 1879, Transcripts, 94.
  2. Bender, 72.
  3. Alvin K. Bailey, "Sheldon Jackson, Planter of Churches," Journal of the Presbyterian Historical Society 26 (September, 1948): 129.
  4. Hinckley, Sheldon Jackson: Gilded Age Apostle, 22.
  5. Sheldon Jackson to the American Beneficence Society, September 12, 1857, Transcripts, 6. Stewart, 33- 34.
  6. Sheldon Jackson to Dear Parents and Sister, August 2, 1859, Ibid, 53.
  7. George Musgrave to Sheldon Jackson, September 5, 1859, Ibid, 57.
  8. Stewart, 54-55.
  9. The Raven Fund, Presbyterian Historical Society, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania .
  10. Henry Kendall to Sheldon Jackson, September 22, 1870, Ibid, 919.
  11. Santa Fe New Mexican, November 19, 1870.
  12. Ibid.
  13. Ibid, November 21, 1870.
  14. Ibid.
  15. Henry Kendall to Sheldon Jackson, September 7, 1872, Transcripts, 170. The executive was Cornelia Martin and Kendall informed Jackson that "she is quite a power in the lands and you would do well to cultivate her."
  16. Stewart, 222.
  17. Jackson's article was republished in the secular Western Reserve Chronicle, but it is unclear if there was any public backlash as a result. Western Reserve Chronicle, December 18, 1872.
  18. Ibid. 157 Rocky Mountain Presbyterian, October, 1875. Rocky Mountain Presbyterian, November, 1875. Rocky Mountain Presbyterian, December, 1875. General Frederick Townsend to Dear Sir, January 10, 1876, Ibid. 783. 158 Ibid., November, 1875.
  19. S. R. Townsend to My Dear Doctor, November 15, 1875, Transcripts, 752. Cornelia W. Martin to Dear Christian Friend and Brother, December 31, 1875, Ibid, 775. Sarah R. Townsend to Sheldon Jackson, January 17, 1876, Ibid, 784.
  20. Rocky Mountain Presbyterian, January, 1876.
  21. Stewart, 267.
  22. Sheldon Jackson to E. N. Condit, July 12, 1878, Transcripts, 302. 200 Stewart, 304.
  23. Sheldon Jackson to E. N. Condit, July 12, 1878, Transcripts, 302. 202 Unknown author, The Thirty-Third Annual Report of the Board of Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian Church of the United States of America (New York, Mission House, 23 Centre Street, 1870), 11. 203 Unknown author, Historical Sketches of the Missions Under the Care of the Board of Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian Church (Philadelphia, Women's Foreign Missionary Society of the Presbyterian Church, 1886), 22-23.
  24. Ibid, 11, 13.
  25. Josiah Sawyer Brown to Sheldon Jackson, June 1, 1877, Alaska State Library.
  26. Compare J. S. Brown's letter (Ibid) with the edited version published in the Rocky Mountain Presbyterian, July, 1877, the entire newspaper collection can be found at the Presbyterian Historical Library, Philadelphia. See Appendix 1 for a full transcript of the unedited letter.
  27. Sheldon Jackson to E. N. Condit, July 12, 1878, Transcripts, 303. 225 Ibid.
  28. J. S. Brown to Sheldon Jackson, August 10, 1877, Transcripts, 108. Amanda McFarland to Sheldon Jackson, September 3, 1878, Ibid, p. 224. Also, Lindsley, 72.
  29. Amanda McFarland to Sheldon Jackson, February 12, 1878, Ibid, 266.
  30. Sheldon Jackson,The Presbyterian Church in Alaska: An Official Sketch of its Rise and Progress, 1877- 1884 (Washington DC, Press of Thomas McGill, 1886), 3.
  31. Jackson, Alaska and Missions on the North Pacific Coast, 139. Rocky Mountain Presbyterian, October 1877. November 11, 1879. 235 Jackson needed the information for his book Alaska, And Missions on the North Pacific which would be published the following year. 236 Ironically, in this book, Jackson claimed a kinship with McFarland and implied that her selection was premeditated. He wrote "I also found at Portland an old missionary friend, Mrs. A. R. McFarland, who was waiting my arrival to consult with regard to future work." 237
  32. McFarland's version of events contradicted Jackson's insinuated planning. She claimed "[t]he last of July, Dr. Jackson said the Home Board was ready to take up the work and was looking for workers to send here, and proposed that I should come with him. So I got ready and started on four days' notice." 238 In fairness to McFarland, she was well acquainted with Indian missions, having accompanied her husband through seven years of missionary work among Indians in the Southwest. However, her role during this time is unspecified, and if she had performed any special functions Jackson would have hastened to highlight them. Lindsley initially opposed McFarland's placement, likely due to the radical implications of leaving a questionably qualified woman alone in uncharted territory. 239 However, once persuaded by Jackson, Lindsley acquiesced, believing he would be McFarland's sole benefactor while he sought a minister. Under his sponsorship, Lindsley commissioned McFarland as Mallory's replacement, subsequently paying for her travel and advancing her two- 235 Amanda McFarland to Sheldon Jackson, November 11, 1879, Transcripts, 289.
  33. Sheldon Jackson, Alaska, and Missions on the North Pacific Coast, 139.
  34. Ibid.
  35. Untitled Article, Sheldon Jackson Papers, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Scrapbook Collection, 55. [Hereafter cited as Scrapbook].
  36. Amanda McFarland to Sheldon Jackson, October 11, 1877, Ibid, 147. hundred dollars to recommence mission efforts. 240 Lindsley believed Jackson only intended to visit Alaska and escort McFarland in the process. 241 Jackson appeared to offer no reason for him to think otherwise.
  37. Lindsley, p. 2. Also, William Sylvester Holt, "Beginning of Mission Work in Alaska by the Presbyterian Church," The Washington Historical Quarterly 11 (April, 1920): 91. 241 Lindsley, 72.
  38. S. Hall Young, Hall Young of Alaska: The Mushing Parson (New York, Fleming H. Revell Company, 1927), 73.
  39. Amanda McFarland to Sheldon Jackson, October 11, 1877, Transcripts, 145. 254 Ibid. 255 Ibid., February 12, 1878, Ibid, 264. Also, Young, 88.
  40. Ibid., May 11, 1878, Transcripts, 44.
  41. Ibid, 17.
  42. Ibid, 3.
  43. Ibid, 8.
  44. R. N. DeArmond, ed., Lady Frankling Visits Sitka, Alaska 1870: The Journal of Sophia Cracroft Sir John Franklin's Niece (Anchorage, Alaska Historical Society, 1981), xvi.
  45. Ibid, 25.
  46. Amanda McFarland to Sheldon Jackson, December 5, 1878, Ibid, 30.
  47. John G. Brady to Sheldon Jackson, July 9, 1878, Ibid, 120.
  48. Amanda McFarland to Sheldon Jackson, February 12, 1878, Ibid, 265.
  49. Lindsley began with a six hundred dollar expense. Aaron Lindsley to Sheldon Jackson, September 25, 1877, Ibid, 134. He also forwarded McFarland another hundred in October. Amanda McFarland to Sheldon Jackson, October 11, 1877, Ibid, 147.
  50. She bought carpet, furniture, food and appliances. She also had her belongings sent through freight without confirming the expense. Amanda McFarland to Sheldon Jackson, October 11, 1877, Ibid, 145-148.
  51. After Philip became sick a doctor bill followed. Amanda McFarland to Sheldon Jackson, November 10, 1877, Ibid, 169. Not liking the old books she inherited she purchased new ones. She also bought a stove. Amanda McFarland to Sheldon Jackson, December 10, 1877, Ibid, 193. Philip's commission was never confirmed by the Home Board, thus, he was never paid. When he died McFarland was left trying to square his debts away. Amanda McFarland to Sheldon Jackson, January 9, 1878, Ibid, 235.
  52. Amanda McFarland to Sheldon Jackson, October 11, 1877, Ibid, 148. 372 Lindsley came to an arrangement with Philip via Mallory. Amanda McFarland to Sheldon Jackson, February 12, 1878, Ibid, 266. McFarland expressed surprise that Lindsley had not been informed of a October 10 th , 1877. ---------------------------------$350.00 November 30 th , 1877. ------------------------------$100.00 February 9 th , 1878. ---------------(To Sheldon Jackson, I think) $51.00 June 18 th , 1878. -------------------------------------$200.00 July 17 th , -------------(Special)---------------------$10.00 Total -----$711.00
  53. separate financial arrangement Jackson made with Philip. Amanda McFarland to Sheldon Jackson, January 9, 1878, Ibid, 238.
  54. Amanda McFarland to Sheldon Jackson, January 9, 1878, Ibid, 235. Also, Amanda McFarland to Sheldon Jackson, February 12, 1878, Ibid, 266.
  55. Ibid, March 14, 1878, Ibid, 282.
  56. McFarland outlined her expenses to Jackson for reasons unknown. In December of 1877 she sent a statement of her financial affairs to Jackson. Ibid, 236.
  57. Cyrus Dickson to Sheldon Jackson, January 25, 1879, Ibid, 86. John G. Brady to Sheldon Jackson, March 31, 1879, Ibid, 170.
  58. Amanda McFarland to Sheldon Jackson, October 11, 1878, Ibid, 262. Kendall continued, "Why it has not reached you is indeed a mystery, and how you have lived is another. This money with the exceptions of the $50.00 and the $10.00 I think has all been sent to and through Dr. Lindsley, supposing that to be the safest way." 378 McFarland was outraged by this note, not realizing that Kendall's accounting was irregular. Lindsley was not granted administrative control of Alaska until October 20, 1877. 379 He would not have received Wrangell funds prior to this date. Furthermore, the five hundred dollars Lindsley received upon his confirmation was conspicuously absent from Kendall's list. An inquiry made by Jackson in the summer of 1879 implied that Lindsley had, to that point, received no payment for his efforts beyond the initial five hundred dollars. 380 Ignorant of the circumstances, Home Board Treasurer O. D. Eaton prodded Lindsley to cover McFarland's salary, believing that he had adequate funds to resolve Wrangell expenses. Linsley responded in frustration: "I can't account for the money coming to … Mrs. McFarland and Dr. Jackson." 381 Lindsley was right to be alarmed by his exclusion as there was a considerable amount of money coming in for Alaska and no regulatory oversight. By the end of 1878 there were at least four Presbyterian entities collecting and administering money for the Wrangell mission. 382 Between October 1877 and December 1879, Jackson claimed he
  59. Aaron Lindsley to Sheldon Jackson, October 20, 1877, Ibid. 153.
  60. O. E. Boyd to Sheldon Jackson, Unknown Date, Ibid, 250. Chronologically, this letter would have been written either late June or early July, 1879.
  61. O. D. Eaton to Sheldon Jackson, April 1, 1879, Ibid, 173.
  62. Sheldon Jackson, the Home Board, the Ladies Board of Missions and the Women's Executive Committee of Home Missions all received and directly administered money earmarked for Alaska.
  63. Sheldon Jackson, Alaska, and Missions on the North Pacific Coast, 144.
  64. Ibid, October 4, 1879, Ibid, 268.
  65. Unknown author to Aaron Lindsley, September 12, 1879, Lindsley-Ross Family Papers 1779-1959, Oregon Historical Society, Portland, Oregon. This letter is incomplete thus the author is unknown.
  66. Amanda McFarland to Sheldon Jackson, November 10, 1877, Transcripts, 170. On November 9, 1878 he sent "another check." Amanda McFarland to Sheldon Jackson, November 9, 1878, Ibid, 237. On October 2, 1879, he sent her another $100. Amanda McFarland to Sheldon Jackson, October 2, 1879, Transcripts, 267.
  67. John G. Brady to Sheldon Jackson, July 9, 1878, Ibid, 119. 390 Precisely when is unclear but by December 17, 1879, he was given full reimbursements and administering salaries. Henry Kendall to Sheldon Jackson, December 17, 1879, Ibid, 319.
  68. J. Thorburn Ross, Aaron Ladner Lindsley: Founder of Alaska Missions and Leader of Other Great Enterprises in the Northwest (n. p., 1910), 6.
  69. Sheldon Jackson to Dear Brother, February 14, 1879, Transcripts, 96.
  70. Henry J. Van Dyke to Sheldon Jackson, January 31, 1879, Transcripts, 93. Jackson immediately requested confirmation of this resolution from the Home Board. O. E. Boyd to Sheldon Jackson, February 3, 1879, Ibid, 99.
  71. lightened their stance, though Jackson's fiscal priorities were not shared by everyone. Dickson wrote Jackson, "I regard Alaska as already receiving more attention and securing larger aid than other larger and more important fields of Home Missionary work." 396
  72. Cyrus Dickson to Sheldon Jackson, January 25, 1879, Ibid, 86. 424 Ibid, 133.
  73. Stewart, 386. Eskimo is not the preferred nomenclature. It is more accurate to differentiate by either Yupik or Inupiat.
  74. Sheldon Jackson, "Our Barbarous Eskimos in Northern Alaska," The Metropolitan Magazine 22 (June, 1905): 257-271. Other articles included, Sheldon Jackson, "The Eskimos of Alaska," The Chautauquan 18 (Nov, 1893): 193-197. Sheldon Jackson, "The Eskimos of Alaska," The Chautauquan 18 (Dec, 1893): 303- 308.
  75. Sheldon Jackson, "The Arctic Eskimos of Alaska," The Church at Home and Abroad 15 (Jan, 1894): 3-7. 427
  76. Sheldon Jackson, Our Barbarous Eskimos in Northern Alaska, 266. 428 Ibid, 268-271.
  77. girls housed in McFarland's Wrangell mission, Jackson wrote "the brightest girls in her school were liable, at any time, to be sold by their heathen mothers to the miners, for the basest of purposes." 429 A similar segment announced: "Mothers offering to sell to the highest bidder, their daughters to lives of shame is a common sight in some of the villages of Alaska." 430 Desiring a greater response from his female readers, Jackson implored them to look upon their own daughters and "have compassion upon these poor mothers whose love is turned into cruelty as they force their daughters into lives of sin." 431 Jackson concluded: "we hope there are many ladies who will feel it a privilege to contribute $1, $5, $10, $25 or $50 -that there are some who will send checks for $100, $200 or $500." 432 Throughout his many lectures and reports, the main point Jackson hoped to impress upon his audience, was "[t]he greater degradation comes on the women, as well as the greater cruelty." 433 On an unknown date, likely in 1879, the Ladies Board of Missions entertained an address on Alaska from both Jackson and his guest Captain Ebenezer Morgan a seaman who operated out of the Pribilof Islands for the Alaska Commercial Company. 434 Jackson recruited Morgan as an eye-witness source who would essentially affirm all of his sensational claims. Taking advantage of the situation, Jackson rehashed old accusations of polygamy, incest, infanticide, slavery, prostitution, widow-burning and devil worship. Morgan played his role by announcing, "I know of but one mistake [Jackson] makes. He
  78. Sheldon Jackson, "Crazy to Learn," Scrapbook, 18.
  79. Sheldon Jackson, no title, Ibid, 28.
  80. Sheldon Jackson, "A Christmas Offering for Alaska," Ibid, 21.
  81. Ibid. 433 Unknown author, "Lecture on Alaska Last Evening," Ibid, 79.
  82. Unknown author, "Alaska: Its Natural Resources and Missionary Needs," Ibid, 83. Also, 122. 435
  83. Sheldon Jackson, "Alaska: Corroborative Testimony," Ibid, 18. Captain Morgan concluded by stating "[t]hese pictures our brother has given are not strong enough. You would blush that the human family could be brought so low. 436 Unknown author, "Dr. Jackson on Alaska," Ibid, 97.
  84. Sheldon Jackson, no title, Ibid, 30.
  85. Sheldon Jackson, "Alaska," Ibid, 66.
  86. Joseph Cook, "Sale of Women in Alaska," Ibid, 30. He also mentioned that "women are sold into slavery and other conditions to which death is preferable." which is the lot of all women in most of the Indian tribes of that great country." 441 The Utica Morning Herald and Daily Gazette made a number of claims such as Alaska Native sons who kill their mothers and leave them for the dogs and Shaman rites in which they tear apart live dogs and eat them. 442 In an editorial titled "Alaska," lawyer Josiah Copley wrote of the propensity of Alaska Natives to sell their daughters "caring but little what use the purchaser may make of them." 443 He also claimed that the women were "slaves and drudges," often leading them to commit infanticide "rather than have them grow up to the wretched condition they themselves are in." 444
  87. While Jackson preferred to talk about the miseries of being an indigenous female in Alaska, he did not shy from general accusations of barbarity. He described a scene in which a gray-haired, blind Native man "had himself torn with his teeth the half-putrid flesh from human corpses and eaten it to get the bad out of him, but in vain." 445 Jackson explained that, when building a house, a slave was murdered and placed under each post of out of superstition. Once completed "scores of slaves were butchered to show the power and wealth of the owner." 446 Every year it was alleged that Alaska Natives engaged in "wild drunken orgies, cannibal feasts and the torture of witches." 447 Jackson proclaimed that in the year 1876, an Alaska Native tribe "sacrificed two slaves to appease 441 Unknown author, "Indian Women of Alaska," Ibid, 47.
  88. Unknown author, "Discussion of Missionary Work by Missionary Laborers -The Work in Mexico, Utah and Alaska," Ibid, 78.
  89. Josiah Copley, "Alaska," Ibid, 78-79.
  90. Ibid, 79.
  91. Sheldon Jackson, "A Thousand Miles for Jesus," Ibid, 68.
  92. Sheldon Jackson, "A Canoe Voyage Off the Coast of Alaska," Ibid, 107.
  93. Ibid. the god of the glacier and stop its further encroachments." 448 Not just an isolated incident, Jackson warned "[d]oubtless human sacrifices are made time and time again in this section of the country that white men get no knowledge of." 449 In a far more random assessment of ignorance, Jackson stated that a chief burned stale berries and potatoes that their spirit may ascend to feed his deceased son, "for the father was still a heathen and knew no better." 450 Because of Alaska's immense popularity, Jackson gradually shifted his full attention to the north but not before providing additional commentary about the Pueblos and the L. D. S. An article published in the Rocky Mountain Presbyterian declared that the Pueblo women of Zuni were "the most disgusting women I have ever met, in their appearance." 451 Jackson claimed that "all, men, women and children [are] full of vermin." 452 Another piece written "To the Ladies of the Presbyterian Church" elaborated on the intense workload women endured and requested a boarding school for them, thereby "lifting them up out of their degraded condition, that of a drudge." 453 To emphasize their superstitious nature, Jackson reported on a solar eclipse that purportedly led the panicked Pueblo to require all women to strip off their clothing and run in pairs. 454 Much as they did previously, the local media looked upon Jackson's reporting unfavorably. The newspaper Thirty-Four announced, "Rev. Sheldon Jackson, who could find no virtuous woman in New Mexico, has deservedly met with a second drubbing at 448
  94. Sheldon Jackson, "Human Sacrifices in Alaska," Ibid, 30.
  95. Sheldon Jackson, "Alaska: A Lecture Delivered in the Amphitheater," Ibid, 67.
  96. Sheldon Jackson, no title, Ibid, 30.
  97. Rocky Mountain Presbyterian, February, 1878.
  98. Ibid.
  99. Ibid, August, 1878.
  100. Ibid, September, 1878. money," stating if he "didn't know that he was deliberately and maliciously lying when he uttered the above, he is a downright fool." 465
  101. Despite Jackson's reliance on fabrications, it is important to acknowledge that not all of his sensational claims can be considered complete lies; some of his cultural approximations amounted to exaggerations or half-truths.
  102. The Salt Lake Herald, August 8, 1883.
  103. Ibid.
  104. Ibid, April 2, 1884.
  105. Ibid. from Christian women. Jackson was lying for sake of money, and he successfully negated any need for evidence by appealing to prejudice and racist impulses. Once they began operating in Alaska, Jackson's colleagues did not always uphold his views on Alaska Native culture. Writing from Haines, Reverend Eugene S. Willard indicated that after three months he witnessed no signs of witchcraft, nor did he have any trouble with alcohol. 466 Commissioned to join Amanda McFarland in Wrangell, Reverend S. Hall Young endorsed Jackson's accounts of polygamy, slavery and drunkenness among Alaska Natives. 467 However, he also claimed the greatest sign of hope "was the social status of the native women. If ever in any heathen country women's rights prevailed, it was in Alaska." 468 Young expressed surprise over this reality. He claimed "[t]his was brought home to me in a startling way soon after I reached Fort Wrangell. … the women more often tyrannized over their husbands than the reverse." 469 Writing a similar evaluation, based on his experience in Alaska and assistance with Presbyterian missions, Commander L. A. Beardslee professed that Alaska Natives "are industrious, treat their women well and take good care of their children. The women have quite a high position and influence in the household." 470 Beardslee's oppositional views about Alaska drew the ire of Jackson, who claimed his opinions were a hindrance to progress. 471
  106. Jackson was likely more congenial with his close friend John G. Brady, who also wrote him a critique regarding the stature of Native women by stating, "You go too far. The
  107. Eugene S. Willard, "Alaska," Scrapbook, 126-127.
  108. Young, 96.
  109. Ibid.
  110. Ibid, 96, 99.
  111. L. A. Beardslee, "North-West Possessions: The Climate, Soil and Products of Alaska," Ibid, p. 124. G. W. Lyons, "Sitka, Alaska," Ibid, 7-8. Linda Austin, "Sitka, Alaska," Ibid, 6.
  112. Commander L. A. Beardslee to Sheldon Jackson, December 10, 1879, Transcripts, 307-308. his vision of degradation and squalor.
  113. Maggie Dunbar spoke to the Ladies Board about Native women and children were "burned and cut in pieces." 473 She claimed an old woman was tied to a tree, fed sea water and then hacked "to death with knives." 474 In a story of slavery and infanticide, Julia McNair Wright announced that "Alaska women are outcast and degraded. They have no idea of honor or purity or of marriage law and sanctity." 475 Mrs. Eugene S. Willard wrote about slavery and witchcraft, while Linda Austin declared that "Indians, even the very oldest, are like children; you have to show them how to do everything, even to keeping clean." 476 In "A Lady's Visit to Alaska," an unknown author described a scenic walk through Wrangell. 477 During the course of this stroll, a "squaw" was asked for directions at which point "[s]he raised her grimy paw and pointed to a hut nearby." 478 Accounts of this nature were, in all likelihood, cajoled. Housed within the William L. Clements Library at the University of Michigan, is a letter written by a Wrangell fisherman known only as Will. 479 Writing to his brother in 1889, Will claimed "there are a number of writers who came up her last summer, the majority were ladies, they would butten hole 472
  114. John G. Brady to Sheldon Jackson, July 12, 1880, Ibid, 229.
  115. Unknown author, "Witchcraft in Alaska," Scrapbook, 91.
  116. Ibid.
  117. Julia McNair Wright, "A Christmas Gift to the Savior," Ibid, 2.
  118. Mrs. Eugene S. Willard, "Sitka, Alaska," Ibid, 37. Unknown author, "Alaska as a Missionary Field," Ibid, 19.
  119. Unknown author, "A Lady's Visit to Alaska," Ibid, 15.
  120. Ibid.
  121. Henry Kendall, Cyrus Dickson to Hon. And Dear Sir, December 10, 1877, Transcripts, 191. 492 If it was Kendall's idea to write the government it is possible this was done deliberately.
  122. Wm. R. Janewar to Senator Theo. F. Randolph, January 14, 1878, Transcripts, p. 243. John Eaton to Hon. Horatio King, January 14, 1878, Ibid, p. 244. Wm. N. Mitchell to Hone. John Sherman, January 29, 1879, Ibid, 89.
  123. John Eaton to Hon. Horatio King, January 14, 1878, Ibid, 244.
  124. Stanley Matthews to Dear Sir, December 20, 1878, Ibid, 45.
  125. O. E. Boyd to Sheldon Jackson, n.d., Ibid, 97.
  126. Sheldon Jackson to Honorable and dear sir, January 24, 1880, Ibid, 24.
  127. J. R. Thompson to Sheldon Jackson, December 18, 1879, Ibid, 321-322.
  128. Ibid, 322. Also, J. R. Thompson to Sheldon Jackson, January 3, 1880, Ibid, 6.
  129. J. R. Thompson, January 20, 1880, Ibid, 18-19.
  130. Sheldon Jackson, The Presbyterian Church in Alaska, 8.
  131. Ibid.
  132. Ibid. As a consequence of his obsession with Alaska, Jackson began to neglect his regular duties, leading his constituents to protest. A colleague wrote Jackson in dismay: "Our work in [Arizona, New Mexico, Utah and Idaho] is half thrown away in consequence of having no buildings to work in. We need new missionaries and more teachers. Where's the reason of sinking money in Alaska when so many important fields right in the heart of the country are unsupplied?" 510 Even Jackson's female supporters cautiously implored him to consider the financial consequences of his new obsession.
  133. Julia Graham warned him, "Alaska has diverted considerably from New Mexico." 511 F. E. Haines bluntly stated, "I can not help thinking that perhaps Fort Wrangle is being oversupplied [sic]." 512 Given the circumstances, Haines' evaluation was accurate, but April 11, 1878. 513 However, Kellogg was Lindsley's niece, and Jackson was not inclined to aid his rival. Instead, Jackson conceived of a mission to Kodiak despite having never been there. 514 He made a dramatic plea for the city and collected donations throughout 1879, but Jackson had no authority to establish a new mission. 515 To get around this problem he instructed the newly established Woman's Executive Committee of Home Missions to bring the matter of a Kodiak mission before
  134. Robert G. McNiece to Sheldon Jackson, February 14, 1879, Transcripts, 108.
  135. Julia M. Graham to Sheldon Jackson, April 4, 1879, Ibid, 179.
  136. F. E. Haines to Sheldon Jackson, September 29, 1879, Ibid, 264.
  137. Amanda McFarland to Sheldon Jackson, March 26, 1878, Ibid, 292.
  138. Sheldon Jackson to Hon. John Sherman, January 29. 1879, Ibid, 89.
  139. M. Fanny Dodd to Sheldon Jackson, May 9, 1879, Ibid, 213.
  140. F. E. Haines to Sheldon Jackson, May 8, 1879, Ibid, 215. F. E. Haines to Sheldon Jackson, May 12, 1879, Ibid, 218.
  141. M. E. Boyd to Sheldon Jackson, October 31, 1879, Ibid, 189. John F. Edgar to Sheldon Jackson, November 21, 1879, Ibid, 295. Robert Davis to Sheldon Jackson, December 11, 1879, Ibid, 308.
  142. F. E. Haines to Sheldon Jackson, June 28, 1879, Ibid, 248.
  143. A. H. Donaldson to Sheldon Jackson, March 31, 1879, Ibid, 172. 520 Rocky Mountain Presbyterian, October 1878.
  144. John Shields to Sheldon Jackson, Ferbruary 10, 1880, Transcripts, 42. five or ten thousand Alaska Natives were "brought more or less under Gospel influences." 533 From a religious perspective Jackson was highly successful at spreading Christianity. He also created awareness to circumstances in Alaska and procured a substantial amount of money for the territory. Regardless, it should not be overlooked that Jackson's achievements hinged on lies about Alaska Native people and the manipulation of Christian women.
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  146. Bancroft, Hubert Howe. The Native Races of the Pacific States of North America. New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1875.
  147. Bender, Norman J. Winning the West for Christ: Sheldon Jackson and Presbyterianism on the Rocky Mountain Frontier, 1869-1880. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1996.
  148. Boyd , Lois A. and R. Douglas Brackenridge. Presbyterian Women in America: Two Centuries of a Quest for Status. Westport: Greenwood Press, 1983.
  149. Brady, Elizabeth Patton. Rev. Sheldon Jackson, D.D.: A Progressive Missionary. New York: Woman's Board of Home Missions of the Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A., 1911.
  150. Cather, Robert G. The Origin and Objects of the Systematic Beneficence Society. London: James Nisbet & Co, 1862.
  151. Coleman, Michael C. Presbyterian Missionary Attitudes toward American Indians, 1837- 1893. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1985.
  152. Collis, Septima M. A Woman's Trip to Alaska. New York: Cassell Publishing Company, 1890.
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  154. Craig, Robert M. Our Mexicans. New York: The Board of Home Missions of the Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A., 1904.
  155. Crosby, Thomas. Up and Down the North Pacific Coast by Canoe and Mission Ship. Toronto: The Missionary Society of the Methodist Church, 1914.
  156. Dall, William H. Alaska and its Resources. Boston: Lee and Shepard, 1870.
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  158. Deloria, Philip J. Playing Indian. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998.
  159. Doyle, Sherman H. Presbyterian Home Missions. Philadelphia: Presbyterian Board of Publication and Sabbath-School Work, 1902.
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  163. Haycox, Stephen and Mary Childers Mangusso, eds. An Alaska Anthology: Interpreting the Past. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1996.
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  166. Huggins, Eli Lundy, Richard A. Pierce, ed. Kodiak and Afognak Life, 1868-1870. Kingston: The Limestone Press, 1981.
  167. Hulbert, Winifred. Sheldon Jackson: The Bishop of All Beyond. New York: Friendship Press, 1983.
  168. Jackson, Sheldon. A Statement of Facts Concerning the Difficulties at Sitka, Alaska, in 1885. Washington D. C.: Thomas McGill & Co., Law Printers, 1886.
  169. ______________. Alaska and its Inhabitants. n.p., 1879.
  170. ______________. Alaska and Missions on the North Pacific Coast. New York: Dodd, Mead & Company, 1880.
  171. ______________. Alaska: Fort Wrangell. New York: Ladies Board of Missions of the Presbyterian Church, 1880.
  172. ______________. Condition of Indian Women and Girls in Portions of Alaska: As Seen by Different Eyes and Gleaned from Different Sources. n.p., 1889.
  173. ______________. Education and Reindeer in Alaska. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1904.
  174. ______________. Evangelization in Alaska. Lancaster: T. B. & H. B. Cochran, Printers, 1896. ______________. Facts about Alaska: Its People, Villages, Missions, Schools. New York: Woman's Executive Committee of Home Missions of the Presbyterian Church, 1894.
  175. ______________. The Native Tribes of Alaska. New York: Phillips & Hunt, 1883. ______________. The Presbyterian Church in Alaska: An Official Sketch of its Rise and Progress, 1877-1884. Washington DC: Press of Thomas McGill, 1886.
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  177. ______________. Work Among Natives in Alaska. Boston: J. Stillman Smith, 1895.
  178. Kan, Sergei. Memory Eternal: Tlingit Culture and Russian Orthodox Christianity through Two Centuries. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1999.
  179. Keller, Robert H., Jr. American Protestantism and United States Indian Policy, 1869-82. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983.
  180. Lamb, W. Kaye, ed. The Journals and Letters of Sir Alexander Mackenzie. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970.
  181. Laufe, Abe, ed. An Army Doctor's Wife on the Frontier. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1962.
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  184. Leonard, Joseph A. History of Olmsted County Minnesota. Chicago: Goodspeed Historical Association, 1910.
  185. McClintock, Eva. Life in Alaska: Letters of Mrs. Eugene S. Willard. Philadelphia: Presbyterian Board of Publication, 1884.
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  189. ________________. The Churches and Indian Schools, 1888-1912. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1979.
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  194. Sullivan, May Kellogg. A Woman Who Went to Alaska. Boston: James H. Earle & Company, 1902.
  195. Tower, Elizabeth A. Reading Religion Reindeer: Sheldon Jackson's Legacy to Alaska. Anchorage: Elizabeth A. Tower, 1988.
  196. Unknown author. A Memorial Booklet of Sheldon Jackson Presbytery in the State of Minnesota. Minnesota: n.p., 1976.
  197. Unknown author. Historical Sketches of the Missions Under the Care of the Board of Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian Church. Philadelphia: Women's Foreign Missionary Society of the Presbyterian Church, 1886.
  198. Unknown author. History of Winona, Olmsted, and Dodge Counties together Biographical Matter, Statistics, Etc. Chicago: H. H. Hill and Company, Publishers, 1884. Unknown author. The Thirty-Third Annual Report of the Board of Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian Church of the United States of America. New York: Mission House, 1870.
  199. Verdesi, Elizabeth Howell. In But Still Out: Women in the Church. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1976.
  200. Weigle, Luther A. American Idealism. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1928.
  201. Wright, Julia McNair. Among the Alaskans. Philadelphia: Presbyterian Board of Publication, 1883.
  202. Young, S. Hall. Hall Young of Alaska: An Autobiography. New York: Fleming H. Revell Company, 1927.
  203. Dissertations Hinckley, Ted. 1961. The Alaska Labors of Sheldon Jackson, 1877-1890. PhD diss., Indiana University.
  204. Krivonosov, Alexander. 2008. Where East Meets West: A Landscape of Familiar Strangers, 1794-1898. PhD diss., The University of New Mexico.
  205. Articles Bailey, Alvin K. 1948. "Sheldon Jackson: Planter of Churches." Journal of The Presbyterian Historical Society 26 (September, 1948): 129-148.
  206. Eaton, John. "Sheldon Jackson: Alaska's Apostle and Pioneer." The Review of Reviews: An International Magazine 13 (June, 1896): 691-696.
  207. Haycox, Stephen. "Sheldon Jackson in Historical Perspective: Alaska Native Schools and Mission Contracts, 1885-1894. Pacific Historian 28 (Spring): 18-28.
  208. Hinckley, Ted. "Sheldon Jackson and Benjamin Harrison: Presbyterians and the Administration of Alaska." The Pacific Northwest Quarterly 54 (April, 1963): 66- 74. ___________. "Sheldon Jackson as Preserver of Alaska's Native Culture." Pacific Historical Review 33 (November, 1964): 411-424.
  209. ___________. "Sheldon Jackson: Gilded Age Apostle." Journal of the West 23 (January, 1984): 16-25.
  210. ___________. "Sheldon Jackson: Presbyterian Lobbyist for the Great Land of Alaska." Journal of Presbyterian History 40 (March, 1962): 3-23.
  211. ___________. "The Presbyterian Leadership in Pioneer Alaska." The Journal of American History 52 (March, 1966): 742-756.
  212. Holt, William Sylvester. "Beginning of Mission Work in Alaska by the Presbyterian Church." The Washington Historical Quarterly 2 (April, 1920): 89-93.
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  215. ______________. "Alaska and its Missions." The Methodist Review of Missions (June, 1896): 697-702.
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  217. ______________. "New Mexico." The Chautauquan 3 (March, 1883): 327-329.
  218. ______________. "Our Barbarous Eskimos in Northern Alaska." The Metropolitan Magazine 22 (June, 1905): 257-271.
  219. ______________. "The Arctic Eskimos of Alaska." The Church at Home and Abroad 15 (January, 1894): 3-7.
  220. ______________. "The Eskimos of Alaska." The Chautauquan 18 (November, 1893): 193-197. ______________. "The Eskimos of Alaska." The Chautauquan 18 (December, 1893): 303-308.
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