Abstract
The purpose of this chapter is to discuss design of acute care settings with a focus on the evolution of design practice over the last decade. In particular, ideas around healing environments describe how design is contributing to enhanced health and wellbeing and how recent developments are helping to create better designs. The chapter covers aspects of the theoretical hypothesis explaining the relationship between people, environment and healing with a focus on three elements: how people perceive the environment, social interaction as part of healing and the influence of people's socio-cultural background. The chapter looks at evidence-informed design in the context of acute healthcare settings whilst also covering trends, challenges and opportunities in healthcare design, and how this field is developing. A case study demonstrates elements of a real project on a before and after basis. The chapter concludes with the message that design of acute care settings involves much more than simply providing a space for care services to take place.
References (178)
- Ackerman, B., Sherwonit, E., & Williams, J. (1989). Reduced incidental light exposure: effect on the development of retinopathy of prematurity in low birth weight infants. Pediatrics, 83(6), 958-962.
- Allaouchiche, B., Duflo, F., Debon, R., Bergeret, A., & Chassard, D. (2002). Noise in the postanaesthesia care unit. British Journal of Anaesthesia, 88(3), 369-373.
- Altimier, L. B. (2004). Healing environments: for patients and providers. Newborn and Infant Nursing Reviews, 4(2), 89-92.
- Altman, I. (1993). Dialectics, physical environments, and personal relationships. Communications Monographs, 60(1), 26-34.
- Anderson, C. A. (1989). Temperature and aggression: ubiquitous effects of heat on occurrence of human violence. Psychological bulletin, 106(1), 74.
- Anderson, J. D., Bonner, M., Scheifele, D. W., & Schneider, B. C. (1985). Lack of nosocomial spread of Varicella in a pediatric hospital with negative pressure ventilated patient rooms. Infect Control, 6(3), 120-1.
- Bamford, G. (2002). From analysis/synthesis to conjecture/analysis: a review of Karl Popper's influence on design methodology in architecture. Design Studies, 23(3), 245-261.
- Baskaya, A., Wilson, C., & Özcan, Y. Z. (2004). Wayfinding in an Unfamiliar Environment Different Spatial Settings of Two Polyclinics. Environment and Behavior, 36(6), 839-867.
- Bate, P., & Robert, G. (2006). Experience-based design: from redesigning the system around the patient to co-designing services with the patient. Quality and Safety in Health Care, 15(5), 307-310.
- Baum, A. & Fleming, I. (1993). Implications of psychological research on stress and technological accidents. American Psychologist 48(6) 665-67.
- Baum, A., O'Keeffe, M. K., & Davidson, L. M. (1990). Acute Stressors and Chronic Response: The Case of Traumatic Stress1. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 20(20), 1643-1654.
- Bayo, M. V., García, A. M., & García, A. (1995). Noise levels in an urban hospital and workers' subjective responses. Archives of Environmental Health: An International Journal, 50(3), 247-251.
- Bell, P. A. (1992). In defense of the negative affect escape model of heat and aggression. Psychological Bulletin 111, 342-46.
- Bell, P. A., & Green, T. C. (1982). Thermal stress: Physiological, comfort, performance, and social effects of hot and cold environments. Environmental stress, 75-104.
- Beral, V., Shaw, H., Evans, S., & Milton, G. (1982). Malignant melanoma and exposure to fluorescent lighting at work. The Lancet, 320(8293), 290-293.
- Bergner, M. (1985). Measurement of health status. Medical care, 23(5), 696-704.
- Biley, F. C. (2000). The effects on patient well-being of music listening as a nursing intervention: a review of the literature. Journal of clinical nursing, 9(5), 668-677.
- Biner, P. M., Butler, D. L., Fischer, A. R., & Westergren, A. J. (1989). An Arousal Optimization Model of Lighting Level Preferences an Interaction of Social Situation and Task Demands. Environment and Behavior, 21(1), 3-16.
- Block, L. K., & Stokes, G. S. (1989). Performance and satisfaction in private versus nonprivate work settings. Environment and Behavior, 21(3), 277-297.
- Brown, B. B. (1992). The ecology of privacy and mood in a shared living group. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 12(1), 5-20.
- Brown, B. B., Altman, I., & Werner, C.W. (1992). Close relationships in the physical and social world: dialectic and transactional analyses. In Deetz, S. (Ed.) Communication yearbook, 15 (pp. 509-22), Newbury Park, CA, Sage.
- CABE -Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment (2006) Designed with care: Design and neighbourhood healthcare buildings. Available from: http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20110118095356/http://www.cabe.org.uk/files/desi gned-with-care.pdf CABE -PricewaterhouseCoopers, L. L. P. (2004). The role of hospital design in the recruitment, retention and performance of NHS nurses in England. CABE (2006). Designed with care: design and neighbourhood healthcare buildings. Retrieved 10 Jan, 2006, from http://www.cabe.org.uk/AssetLibrary/4349.pdf.
- Cabrera, I. N., & Lee, M. H. (2000). Reducing noise pollution in the hospital setting by establishing a department of sound: a survey of recent research on the effects of noise and music in health care. Preventive medicine, 30(4), 339-345.
- Charles, K. E. (2003). A review of occupant responses to localized air distribution systems. In Proceedings: Healthy Buildings (pp. 304-310).
- Chaudhury, H., Mahmood, A., & Valente, M. (2005). Advantages and disadvantages of single versus multiple-occupancy rooms in acute care environments: a review and analysis of the literature. Environment and Behavior, 37(6), 760-786.
- Chow, T. T., & Yang, X. Y. (2003). Performance of ventilation system in a non-standard operating room. Building and environment, 38(12), 1401-1411.
- Christensen, M. (2004), "Noise levels in a general surgical ward: a descriptive study", Journal of Clinical Nursing, Vol. 14, pp. 156-64
- Christensen, M. (2007). Noise levels in a general intensive care unit: a descriptive study. Nursing in critical care, 12(4), 188-197.
- Clarke, D (2012) Hospitals, in Littlefield, D. (ed) Metric Handbook, Routledge.
- Codinhoto, R., Tzortzopoulos, P., Kagioglou, M., Aouad, G., & Cooper, R. (2009). The impacts of the built environment on health outcomes. Facilities, 27(3-4), 138-151.
- Cohen, S. (1978). Environmental load and the allocation of attention. In Baum, A. & Valins, S. (Eds). Advances in environmental psychology. Hillsdale, Lawrence Erlbaum.
- Connellan, K., Gaardboe, M., Riggs, D., Due, C., Reinschmidt, A., & Mustillo, L. (2013). Stressed Spaces: Mental health and architecture (Doctoral dissertation, Vendome Group).
- Cook, M. (1970) Experiments on orientation and proxemics. Human Relations, 23(1), 61-76
- Cooper, R., Boyko, C., & Codinhoto, R. (2008). State-of-Science Review: SR-DR2. The Effect of the Physical Environment on Mental Wellbeing. Foresight Mental Capital and Wellbeing Project.
- Cotterill, S., Evans, R., & Fraise, A.P. (1996). An unusual source for the outbreak of methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus on an intensive therapy unit. Journal of Hospital Infection, 32(3), 207-216.
- Dalke, H., Little, J., Niemann, E., Camgoz, N., Steadman, G., Hill, S., & Stott, L. (2006). Colour and lighting in hospital design. Optics & Laser Technology, 38(4), 343-365.
- Daykin, N. & E. Byrne (2006). The impact of visual arts and design on the health and wellbeing of patients and staff in mental health care: A systematic review of the literature. Bristol, Centre for Public Health Research in the University of the West of England.
- Devlin, A.S. and Arneill, A.B. (2003), "Health care environments and patient outcomes: a review of the literature", Environment and Behavior, Vol. 35 No. 5, pp. 665-94
- Dijkstra, K., Pieterse, M.E., & Pruyn, A.Th.H (2006). Physical environmental stimuli that turn healthcare facilities into healing environments through psychologically mediated effects: systematic review. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 56(2), 166-181.
- Douglas, C. H. & Douglas, M. R. (2004). Patient-friendly hospital environments: exploring the patients' perspective. Health Expectations, 7(1), 61-73.
- Douglas, C. H. & Douglas, M. R. (2005). Patient-centred improvements in health-care built environments: perspectives and design indicators. Health Expectations, 8(3), 264-276.
- Edge, K. J. (2003). Wall color of patient's room: Effects on recovery (Doctoral dissertation, University of Florida).
- Ersser, S., Wiles, A., Taylor, H., Wade, S., Walsh, R., & Bentley, T. (2001). The sleep of older people in hospital and nursing homes. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 8(4), 360-368.
- Estates, N. H. S. (1999). Improving the quality of design of healthcare buildings. Unpublished report, 15.
- Estates, N. H. S. (2005). Wayfinding: effective wayfinding and signing systems; guidance for healthcare facilities. Stationery Office.
- Etnier, J.L. and Hardy, C.J. (1997) The effects of environment color. Journal of Sport Behavior, 20 (3), 299-312.
- Evans, B. (2010). Evidence-based design. In: Lombaerde, P. (Ed.), Bringing the World into Culture: Comparative Methodologies in Architecture, Art, Design and Science, 227.
- Evans, G. W. (1984). Environmental stress, Cambridge University Press.
- Evans, G. W., & McCoy, J. M. (1998). When buildings don't work: the role of architecture in human health. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 18(1), 85-94.
- Ferrans, C. E., Zerwic, J. J., Wilbur, J. E., & Larson, J. L. (2005). Conceptual model of health-related quality of life. Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 37(4), 336-342.
- Fischl, G. (2006). Psychosocially supportive design in the indoor environment. Division of Engineering Psychology, Department of Human Work Sciences, Lule̊a University of Technology.
- Fottler, M. D., Ford, R. C., Roberts, V., Ford, E. W., & Spears Jr, J. D. (2000). Creating a healing environment: the importance of the service setting in the new consumer-oriented healthcare system. Journal of Healthcare Management, 45, 91-107.
- Francis, S. (2004). Making special places for health care. Designing Better Buildings: Quality and Value in the Built Environment, 107.
- Fransson, N., Vastfjall, D., & Skoog, J. (2007) In search of the confortable indoor environment: a comparison of the utility of objective and subjective indicators of indoor comfort. Building and Environment, 42(5), 1886-1890.
- Fridkin, S. K., Kremer, F. B., Bland, L. A., Padhye, A., McNeil, M. M., & Jarvis, W. R. (1996). Acremonium kiliense endophthalmitis that occurred after cataract extraction in an ambulatory surgical center and was traced to an environmental reservoir. Clinical infectious diseases, 22(2), 222-227.
- Gerdner, L. A. (2000). Effects of individualized versus classical "relaxation" music on the frequency of agitation in elderly persons with Alzheimer's disease and related disorders. International Psychogeriatrics, 12(01), 49-65.
- Gifford, R. (2014). Environmental psychology matters. Psychology, 65(1), 541.
- Girardin, W., B. (1992). Light wave frequency and sleep-wake frequency in well, full-term neonates. Holistic Nursing Practice, 6,(4), 57-66.
- Glass, P., Avery, G. B., Subramanian, K. N., Keys, M. P., Sostek, A. M., & Friendly, D. M. (1985). Effects of bright light in hospital nursery on the incidence of retinopathy of maturity. The New England Journal of Medicine, 313(7), 401-404.
- Grosenick, J. K., & Hatmaker, C. M. (2000). Perceptions of the importance of physical setting in substance abuse treatment. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 18(1), 29-39.
- Grunden, N., & Hagood, C. (2012). Lean-led hospital design: Creating the efficient hospital of the future. CRC Press.
- Gutgsell, K. J., Schluchter, M., Margevicius, S., DeGolia, P. A., McLaughlin, B., Harris, M., & Wiencek, C. (2013). Music therapy reduces pain in palliative care patients: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of pain and symptom management, 45(5), 822-831.
- Haddock, J. (1994). Clinical sleep: Reducing the effects of noise in hospital. Nursing Standard, 8(43), 25-28.
- Haggard, L. M. & Werner, C. M. (1990). Situational support, privacy regulation, and stress. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 11(3), 313-37.
- Hair, L. P. 1998. "Satisfaction by Design." Marketing Health Services 6 (Fall): 5-8.
- Hall, E.T. (1968). Proxemics. Current Anthropology, 9(2/3).
- Hamilton, D. K. (2012). Creativity, Decision Making, and Evidence-Based Design. HERD: Health Environments Research & Design Journal, 5(2), 111.
- Hamilton, D. K., & Watkins, D. H. (2009). Evidence-based design for multiple building types. John Wiley & Sons.
- Hartig, T. (2007). Three steps to understanding restorative environments as health resources. Open space: People space, 163-179.
- Hartig, T., Evans, G. W., Jamner, L. D., Davis, D. S., & Gärling, T. (2003). Tracking restoration in natural and urban field settings. Journal of environmental psychology, 23(2), 109-123.
- Hedge, A. (1989). Environmental conditions and health in offices. International Reviews of Ergonomics, 3, 87-110.
- Hickam, D. H., Severance, S., Feldstein, A., Ray, L., Gorman, P., Schuldheis, S., & Helfand, M. (2003). The Effect of Health Care Working Conditions on Patient Safety: Summary.
- Hillier, B., Musgrove, J., & O'Sullivan, P. (1972). Knowledge and design. Environmental design: research and practice, 2.
- Hippocrates (400 BC), in Adams, F. (Ed.), On the Surgery, available at: http://classics.mit.edu/Hippocrates/surgery.html (accessed 2 September 2008).
- Hobfoll, S. E. (1991). Traumatic stress: A theory based on rapid loss of resources. Anxiety Research, 4(3), 187-197.
- Hwang, R. L., Lin, T. P., Cheng, M. J., & Chien, J. H. (2007). Patient thermal comfort requirement for hospital environments in Taiwan. Building and environment, 42(8), 2980- 2987.
- Ikonomidou, E., Rehnström, A., & Naesh, O. (2004). Effect of music on vital signs and postoperative pain. Aorn, 80(2), 269-278.
- Jacobs, K. W. & Hustmyer Jr., F. E. (1974). Effects of four psychological primary colors on GSR (galvanic skin response) heart rate and respiration rate. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 38, 763-766.
- Jacobs, K. W. & Suess J.F. (1975). Effects of Four Psychological Primary Colors on Anxiety State. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 41(1), 207-210.
- James, C. N., & Robert, B. W. (1971). Emotional attributes of color: A comparison of violet and green. Perceptual and motor skills, 32(2), 403-406.
- Johnson, R. J., & Wolinsky, F. D. (1993). The structure of health status among older adults: disease, disability, functional limitation, and perceived health. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 105-121.
- Joseph, A. (2006). The impact of light on outcomes in healthcare settings. Center for Health Design.
- Joseph, A. (2006b). The impact of the environment on infections in healthcare facilities. Center for Health Design.
- Kaplan, R. (2001). The Nature of the View from Home Psychological Benefits. Environment and Behavior, 33(4), 507-542.
- Kaya, N., & Crosby, M. (2006). Color associations with different building types: an experimental study on American college students. Color Research & Application, 31(1), 67- 71. Kliment, S. (2000), Building Type Basics for Healthcare Facilities, John Wiley &Sons, Canada.
- Konkani, A., & Oakley, B. (2012). Noise in hospital intensive care units-a critical review of a critical topic. Journal of critical care, 27(5), 522-e1.
- Körlin, D., Nybäck, H., & Goldberg, F. S. (2000). Creative arts groups in psychiatric care Development and evaluation of a therapeutic alternative. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 54(5), 333-340.
- Kothari, C. R. (2004). Research methodology: methods and techniques. New Age International.
- Kripke, D. F. (1998). Light treatment for nonseasonal depression: speed, efficacy, and combined treatment. Journal of affective disorders, 49(2), 109-117.
- Kripke, D. F., Mullaney, D. J., Klauber, M. R., Craig Risch, S., & Christian Gillin, J. (1982). Controlled trial of bright light for nonseasonal major depressive disorders. Biological Psychiatry, 31(2), 119-134.
- Kripke, D. F., Risch, S. C., & Janowsky, D. (1983). Bright white light alleviates depression. Psychiatry research, 10(2), 105-112.
- Law, M., Cooper, B., Strong, S., Stewart, D., Rigby, P., & Letts, L. (1996). The person- environment-occupation model: A transactive approach to occupational performance. Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy, 63(1), 9-23.
- Lawson, B. (2001). Language of space. Oxford, Elsevier.
- Lawson, B. (2010). Healing architecture. Arts & Health, 2(2), 95-108.
- Lawson, B. R. (2004). Assessing benefits in the health sector. Designing better buildings, 100-106.
- Lawson, B., & Phiri, M. (2000). Hospital design. Room for improvement. The Health service journal, 110(5688), 24-26.
- Lawson, B., & Phiri, M. (2004). Providing single rooms for patients: a study of the benefits to patients and staff within the NHS in England. Sheffield, The University of Sheffield, School of Architecture, 60.
- Lawson, B., and Phiri, M. (2005) Safer Environment Database, NHS Estates, EFM-Evidence.
- Leather, P., Beale, D., & Sullivan, L. (2003a). Outcomes of Environmental Appraisal of Different Hospital Waiting Areas. Environment and Behavior 35(6): 842-869.
- Leather, P., Beale, D., & Sullivan, L. (2003b). Noise, psychosocial stress and their interaction in the workplace. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 23(2), 213-222.
- Leather, P., et al. (2000). A comparative study of the impact of environmental design upon hospital patients and staff. Nottingham, Institute of Work, Health & Organisations - University of Nottingham: 62.
- Liu, E. H., & Tan, S. M. (2000). Patients' perception of sound levels in the surgical suite. Journal of clinical anesthesia, 12(4), 298-302.
- Loewen, L. J., & Suedfeld, P. (1992). Cognitive and arousal effects of masking office noise. Environment and Behavior, 24(3), 381-395.
- Lu, S., & Zhu, N. (2007). Experimental research on physiological index at the heat tolerance limits in China. Building and Environment, 42(12), 4016-4021.
- Malkin, J. (2008). A visual reference for evidence-based design. Center for Health Design.
- Malone, E., Nanda, U., & Harmsen, C. (2008). An Introduction to Evidence-Based Design: Exploring Healthcare and Design (EDAC Study Guides, Volume 1). The Center for Health Design, Inc.
- Marcus, C. C. (2000). Gardens and health. In Design and Health: The Therapeutic Benefits of Design, 2nd International Congress on Design and Health, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm (pp. 461-71).Chicago
- Marcus, C. C., & Barnes, M. (Eds.). (1999). Healing gardens: Therapeutic benefits and design recommendations. Wiley.
- McCullough, C. (2010) Evidence-based Design. In: McCullough, C. (ed) Evidence-based design for healthcare facilities. R. Wilmeth, USA, 252p.
- McGarry, T. J., & Prince, M. (1998). Implementation of groups for creative expression on a psychiatric inpatient unit. Journal of psychosocial nursing and mental health services, 36(3), 19-24.
- McLaren, L., & Hawe, P. (2005). Ecological perspectives in health research. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 59(1), 6-14.
- McLaughlin, C., Olson, R., & White, M. J. (2008). Environmental issues in patient care management: proxemics, personal space, and territoriality. Rehabilitation Nursing, 33(4), 143-147.
- Menzies, D., Fanning, A., Yuan, L., & FitzGerald, J. M. (2000). Hospital ventilation and risk for tuberculous infection in Canadian health care workers. Canadian Collaborative Group in Nosocomial Transmission of TB. Annals of Internal Medicine, 133(10), 779.
- Miller, C. L., White, R., Whitman, T. L., O'Callaghan, M. F., & Maxwell, S. E. (1995). The effects of cycled versus noncycled lighting on growth and development in preterm infants. Infant behavior and development, 18(1), 87-95.
- Miller, R. L., & Swensson, E. S. (2002). Hospital and healthcare facility design. WW Norton & Company.
- Milligan, C., Gatrell, A., & Bingley, A. (2004). 'Cultivating health': therapeutic landscapes and older people in northern England. Social Science & Medicine, 58(9), 1781-1793.
- Mornhinweg, G. C. (1992). Effects of music preference and selection on stress reduction. Journal of Holistic Nursing, 10(2), 101-109.
- Morris, R. (2005). The cognitive psychology of planning. Psychology Press.
- Morrison, W. E., Haas, E. C., Shaffner, D. H., Garrett, E. S., & Fackler, J. C. (2003). Noise, stress, and annoyance in a pediatric intensive care unit. Critical care medicine, 31(1), 113- 119.
- Mulrow, C. D. & D. J. Cook (1997). Formulating questions and locating primary studies for inclusion in systematic reviews. Annals of Internal Medicine, Academia and Clinic, Systemtic Review Series 127(5): 380-387.
- Mulrow, C. D. (1994). Rationale for systematic reviews. BMJ: British Medical Journal, 309(6954), 597.
- Nagano, K., & Mochida, T. (2004). Experiments on thermal environmental design of ceiling radiant cooling for supine human subjects. Building and environment, 39(3), 267-275.
- NHS Estates. (2005). Safer Environment Database -EFM-Evidence. Lawson, B (Ed.).
- Nightingale, F. (1863). Notes on hospitals. Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts, and Green.
- Northridge, M. E., Sclar, E. D., & Biswas, P. (2003). Sorting out the connections between the built environment and health: a conceptual framework for navigating pathways and planning healthy cities. Journal of Urban Health, 80(4), 556-568.
- Nourse, J. C., & Welch, R. B. (1971). Emotional attributes of color: A comparison of violet and green. Perceptual and motor skills, 32(2), 403-406.
- Nuffield Provincial Hospitals Trust (1960). Studies in the functions of hospitals, Oxford University Press. Office for National Statistics, 2013 Mid-2013 Population Estimates UK http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/dcp171778_367167.pdf Office for National Statistics, March 2014 Estimates of the very old, 2002 -2012. UK O'Neill, M. J. (1991). Effects of signage and floor plan configuration on wayfinding accuracy. Environment and Behavior, 23(5), 553-574.
- Onieva-Zafra, M. D., Castro-Sánchez, A. M., Matarán-Peñarrocha, G. A., & Moreno- Lorenzo, C. (2013). Effect of music as nursing intervention for people diagnosed with fibromyalgia. Pain Management Nursing, 14(2), e39-e46.
- Passini, R., Pigot, H., Rainville, C., & Tétreault, M. H. (2000). Wayfinding in a nursing home for advanced dementia of the Alzheimer's type. Environment and Behavior, 32(5), 684-710.
- Patrick, D.L. & Bergner, M. (1990) Measurement of Health Status in the 1990s. Annual Review of Public Health. 11, 165-183.
- Pelosi, P., Solca, M., Ravagnan, I., Tubiolo, D., Ferrario, L., & L., Gattinoni (1996). Effects of heat and moisture exchangers on minute ventilation, ventilatory drive, and work of breathing during pressure-support ventilation in acute respiratory failure. Critical Care Med, 24, (7), 1184-1188
- Philipp, R., Baum, M., Macnaughton, J., & Calman, K. (2002). Arts, health and well-being. Nuffield Trust, London.
- Phiri, M. (2014). Design Tools for Evidence-based Healthcare Design. Routledge.
- Pignone, M., Saha, S., Hoerger, T., Lohr, K. N., Teutsch, S., & Mandelblatt, J. (2005). Challenges in systematic reviews of economic analyses. Annals of internal medicine, 142(12_Part_2), 1073-1079.
- Proshansky, H. M., Ittelson, W. H., & Rivlin, L. G. (1976). Environmental psychology: People and their physical settings. London, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
- Purves, G. (2012) Primary Health Care, in Littlefield, D. (ed) Metric Handbook. Routledge.
- Qatari, G. A., & Haran, D. (1999). Determinants of users' satisfaction with primary health care settings and services in Saudi Arabia. International Journal for Quality in Health Care, 11(6), 523-531.
- Rabin M. Medical-facility colors reduce patient stress.Contract (New York) 1981; 23(3):78- 83.
- Raybeck, D. (1991). Proxemics and privacy: Managing the problems of life in confined environments. In A. A. Harrison, Y. A. Clearwater, & C. P. McKay (Eds.), From Antarctica to outer space: Life in confined environments (pp. 317-330). New York: Springer-Verlag.
- Rebeiro, K. L. (2001). Enabling occupation: The importance of an affirming environment. Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy, 68(2), 80-89.
- Reed, D., Price, E. G., Windish, D. M., Wright, S. M., Gozu, A., Hsu, E. B., & Bass, E. B. (2005). Challenges in systematic reviews of educational intervention studies. Annals of internal medicine, 142(12 Pt 2), 1080.
- Richards, K., C., & Bairnsfather, L. (1988). Sleep in the ICU: A description of night sleep patterns in the critical care unit. Heart & Lung, 17, (1), 35-42.
- Rollins, J. A. (2009). The Influence of 2 Hospitals' Designs and Policies on Social Interaction and Privacy as Coping Factors for Children with Cancer and Their Families. Journal of Pediatric Oncology Nursing.
- ROOKE, C. N. (2012). Improving Wayfinding in old and complex hospital environments (Doctoral dissertation, The University of Salford).
- Rooke, C. N., Tzortzopoulos, P., Koskela, L. J., & Rooke, J. A. (2009). Wayfinding: embedding knowledge in hospital environments. HaCIRIC, Imperial College Business School, London, UK, 158-167.
- Rubonis, A. V. & L. Bickman (1991). Psychological impairment in the wake of disaster. Psychological Bulletin (109): 384-99.
- Sackett, D. L., Rosenberg, W., Gray, J. A., Haynes, R. B., & Richardson, W. S. (1996). Evidence based medicine: what it is and what it isn't. Bmj, 312(7023), 71-72.
- Sallis JF, Owen N, Fisher EB. 2008. Ecological models of health behaviors. In Health Behavior and Health Education. Theory, Research, and Practice, ed. K Glanz, BK Rimer, K Viswanath, pp. 465-85. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 4th ed
- Sanders, E. B. N., & Stappers, P. J. (2008). Co-creation and the new landscapes of design. Co-design, 4(1), 5-18.
- Sebastian, R. (2011). Changing roles of the clients, architects and contractors through BIM. Engineering, Construction and Architectural Management, 18(2), 176-187.
- Smith, A. P. (1991). Noise and aspects of attention. British Journal of Psychology 82: 313- 24.
- Söderback, I., Söderström, M., & Schälander, E. (2004). Horticultural therapy: the'healing garden'and gardening in rehabilitation measures at Danderyd Hospital Rehabilitation Clinic, Sweden. Developmental Neurorehabilitation, 7(4), 245-260.
- Staricoff, R. L. (2004). Arts in health: a review of the medical literature. London: Arts Council England.
- Staricoff, R., Loppert, S., Kirklin, D., & Richardson, R. (2003). Integrating the arts into health care: Can we affect clinical outcomes. The Healing Environment: Without and Within. London: RCP, 63-79.
- Steffes R, Thralow J. Do uniform colors keeps patientsawake? Journal of Gerontological Nursing 1985; 11(7):6-9.
- Stone, N. (2003). Environmental view and color for a simulated telemarketing task. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 23: 63-78.
- Sundstrom, E., Bell, P. A., Busby, P. L., & Asmus, C. (1996). Environmental Psychology 1989-1994. Annual review of psychology, 47(1), 485-512.
- Thayer, R. E. (1989). The BioPsychology of Mood and Arousal. New York, Oxford University Press.
- Topf, M. (2000). Hospital noise pollution: an environmental stress model to guide research and clinical interventions. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 31(3), 520-528.
- Topf, M., & Thompson, S. (2001). Interactive relationships between hospital patients' noise- induced stress and other stress with sleep. Heart & Lung: The Journal of Acute and Critical Care, 30(4), 237-243.
- Topf, M., Bookman, M., & Arand, D. (1996). Effects of criticial care unit noise on the subjective quality of sleep. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 24, 545-551.
- Tranfield, D., Denyer, D., & Smart, P. (2003). Towards a methodology for developing evidence-informed management knowledge by means of systematic review. British journal of management, 14(3), 207-222.
- Ulrich, R. Quan, X. Zimring, C. Joseph, A. and Choudhary, R. (2004). The role of the physical environment in the hospital of the 21st century: An once-in-a-lifetime opportunity, Center for health design for the designing the 21st century hospital project: 69.
- Ulrich, R., Zimring, C., Zhu, X., DuBose, J., Seo, H., Choi, Y., Quan, X. and Joseph, A. (2008), "A review of the research literature on evidence-based healthcare design", Health Environments Research and Design Journal, Vol. 1 No. 3, pp. 61-125
- Ulrich, R.S. (1981). Natural versus Urban Scenes: Some Psychophysiological Effects. Environment and Behavior, 13, pp. 523-556.
- Ulrich, R.S. (1984). View through a Window May Influence Recovery from Surgery. Science, 224, pp. 420-421.
- Ulrich, R.S. (1992). Effects of Interior Design on Wellness: Theory and Recent Scientific Research. Journal of Healthcare Design, 3, pp. 97-109.
- Vaajoki, A., Pietilä, A. M., Kankkunen, P., & Vehviläinen-Julkunen, K. (2012). Effects of listening to music on pain intensity and pain distress after surgery: an intervention. Journal of clinical nursing, 21(5-6), 708-717.
- Veitch, J. A. (1990). Office noise and illumination effects on reading comprehension. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 10, 209-217.
- Veitch, J. A., & McColl, S. L. (1993). Full spectrum fluorescent lighting effects on people: A critical review (No. 659). Ottawa, Canada: Institute for Research in Construction.
- Werner, C. M., Altman, I., & Brown, B. B. (1992). A transactional approach to interpersonal relations: physical environment, social context and temporal qualities. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 9(2), 297-323.
- Whitehouse, S., Varni, J. W., Seid, M., Marcus, C. C., Ensberg, M. J., Jacob, J. R., & Mehlenbeck, R. S. (2001). Evaluating a children's hospital garden environment: utilization and consumer satisfaction. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 21, 301-314.
- Wicker, A. W. & R. A. August (1995). How far should we generalize? The case of a workload model. Psychological Science 6, 39-44.
- Wicker, A. W. (1992). Making sense of environments. Person-Environment Psychology: Models and Perspectives. W. B. Walsh, K. H. Craik and R. H. Price, Hillsdale: 157-92.
- Wilson, G. D. (1966). Arousal properties of red versus green. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 23, 942-949.
- Wilson, I.B., & Cleary, P.D. (1995) Linking clinical variables with health-related quality of life. A conceptual model of patient outcomes Journal of American Medical Association; 273, 59-65
- Yerevanian, B. I., Anderson, J. L., Grota, L. J., & Bray, M. (1986). Effects of bright incandescent light on seasonal and nonseasonal major depressive disorder. Psychiatry Research, 18(4), 355-364.
- Zimring, C., Joseph, A., Nicoll, G.L. and Tsepas, S. (2005) Influences of building design and site design on physical activity: research and intervention opportunities. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 28 (2S2), p.186-193.