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Medicine and Health Sciences
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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION Background to the Study

Profile image of Grace OduroGrace Oduro

2018, mkpuma solomon

Abstract

Preface "Once I thought to write a history of immigrants in America," commented Oscar Handlin in The Uprooted. "Then I discovered that the immigrants were American history."* An important segment of that history is the large numbers of Mexicans who began moving into the United States in the very late 1800s. They were one of the successive waves of newcomers who helped transform an almost empty area into a powerful nation. Their coming coincided with the immigration of millions of "new" immigrants from southern and eastern Europe who came to the United States for similar reasons. From 1897 to 1930 low-paid, unskilled workers were in strong demand in the United States, especially for agricultural work and railroad building. Simultaneously, events in Mexico created a large class of migrant workers. In view of the migrant's strong ties to their ancestral area, migratory patterns would not have emerged by the turn of the twentieth century without the existence of compelling factors in the Mexican society and economy. Circumstances in Mexico provided the initial impetus for the movement northward of campesinos and peones. My major concern throughout this study is the people whom the Mexican novelist Mariano Azuela called "the underdogs" (los de abajo). This group of people comprised upward of 90 percent of Mexican immigrants to the United States from 1897 to 1930. The history of middle-and upperclass immigrants forms another story, related to this one but not part of it.

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  105. Report ... Commerce and Labor ... /9/0, pp. 107, 129-32; Bureau of the Census, Twelfth Census of the United States: /900, Supplementary Analysis and Derivative Tables (Washington: GPO, 1906), p. 177.
  106. Thirteenth Census of the United States Taken in the Year /9/0, vol. I: Population, pp. 875, 879; Fifteenth Census of the United States: /930, Population: Volume 2, p. 27. CHAPTER 3 l. Jose Puig Casauranc, De nuestro Mexico (Mexico: n.p., 1926), p. 97; Charles C. Cumberland, Mexican Revolution: The Constitutionalist Years (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1972), pp. 39, 123,139,400, passim; Luis Gonzalez y Gonzalez, San Jose de Gracia: Mexican Village in Transition, Trans. John Upton, 2nd ed. (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1974), pp. 129-38;
  107. William B. Davis, Experi- ences and Observations of an American Consular Officer During the Recent Mexican Revolutions (Los Angeles: Author, 1920), pp. 145-51.
  108. Angel Caso, Derecho agrario (Mexico: Porrua, 1950), pp. 486-98; Manuel Gonzalez Ramirez (ed.), Fuentes para la historia de la Revoluci6n mexicana, 4 vols. (Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Economica, 1954-1957) vol. 4, passim, has decrees of other revolutionary chieftains; Salvador Lira Lopez et al., La pobreza rural en Mexico (Mexico: Banco de Credito Ejidal, 1945), p. 21; Tannenbaum, The Mexican Agrarian Revolution, pp. 399-401.
  109. Ricardo Bravo, Del Rio consul, to Headquarters, September 23, 1912, AHSRE, 16-8-90; Commissioner General of Immigration, Annual Report, 1914 (Washington: GPO, 1915), p. 340.
  110. Gamio, The Mexican Immigrant, pp. 2-3, 6, 58 (quote).
  111. Ibid., p. 217; Puig Casauranc, De nuestro Mexico, p. 97; Commissioner General of Immigration, Annual Report, 1914, p. 340; Arizona Gazette, May 2, 1911, in AHSRE, "Ramo de la Revolucion mexicana," 111/513 "91 I," R-43-17, 73-37.
  112. Memorandum of November 17, 1917, [name illegible] to Carranza, Carranza papers; Cumberland, Constitutionalist Years, pp. 397-98; Michael C. Meyer, Huerta: A Political Portrait (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1972), pp. 180-81; Martinez, Border Boom Town, p. 41; Davis, Experiences and Obser- vations, p. 36.
  113. Merle E. Simmons, The Mexican Corrido as a Source for Interpretive Study of Modern Mexico (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1957), pp. 142-43.
  114. "Cost of Living in Mexico, 1910, and February to May, 1921," Monthly Labor Review 13 (September, 1921): 71-72; Carranza papers, passim; El Universal, November 13 and 17, 1916; ibid., November 20, 1918; Fernando Gonzalez Roa, El aspecto agrario de la Revoluci6n mexicana (Mexico: Talleres Graficos de la Nacion, 1919), 170; Edwin Kemmerer, Inflation and Revolution: Mexico's Expe_ri- ence of 19/2-1917 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1940), pp. 46-61;
  115. Bernstein,Mexican Mining Industry, pp. 99-105, 118-23.
  116. Gamio, The Mexican Immigrant, pp. 87-89.
  117. Quoted in Simmons, The Mexican Corrido, p. 142.
  118. Ibid., p. 169 (quote).
  119. Edwin Lieuwin, Mexican Militarism (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1968), p. 37 (first quote);
  120. Ernesto Galarza, Barrio Boy (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1971), p. 168 (second quote);
  121. Simmons, The Mexican Corrido, p. 168; Carranza papers, passim.
  122. Harry A. Franck, Tramping Through Mexico, Guatemala and Honduras (New York: The Century Co., 1916), p. 159; Emile J. Dillon, Mexico on the Verge (New York: George H. Doran Co., 1921), p. 27.
  123. Commissioner General of Immigration, Annual Report, 1912, pp. 224-25 (first quote); idem, Annual Report, 1916 (second quote); idem, Annual Report, 1917, p. 83; Report ... Commerce and Labor ... 1911, p. 314.
  124. San Diego Union, May 8, 1911, in AHSRE, "Ramo de la Revolucion mexicana," 111/513 "911 "/R-43-20; El Paso Herald, December 16, 1910, ibid., III/H/513 "910"-20-1. L-E-620;New York Times, January 12 and 13, 1914; ibid., January 5, 1915; Robert McLean and Grace Petrie Williams, Old Spain in New America (New York: Council of Women for Home Missions, 1916), pp. 62-63, 155-58, 131-38;
  125. Ricardo Romo, "Mexican Workers in the City: Los Angeles, 1915-1930," (Ph.D. dissertation in History, University of California, Los Angeles, 1975), pp. 189-92.
  126. Nash, The American West in the Twentieth Century, pp. 66-67, 76-77, 96-98;
  127. Jesus Gonzalez, Nuestros problemas (Mexico: Mexico Moderno, 1921), p. 28; Rosalio Moises, The Tall Candle (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1971), p. 75; Yves Lelevier, Globe consul, to Candido Aguilar, Secretary of Foreign Relations, August 17, 1917, AHSRE, 13-14-40; El Universal, March 3, 1920;
  128. U.S. Senate, Investigation of Mexican Affairs (2 vols.; Washington: GPO, 1920), vol. 2, p. 2162.
  129. Frank L. Polk, Acting Secretary of State, to Marion Letcher, Foreign Trade Advisor of the Department of State, January 2, 1918, RG 59, 811.504/85; Truman G. Palmer to Robert Lansing, Secretary of State, August 8, 1917, ibid., 811.504/ 42;
  130. U.S. Congress, House Committee on Immigration and Naturalization, Temporary Admission of llliterate Mexican Laborers (Washington: GPO, 1920), pp. 19, 30, 37, 169-70; Commissioner General of Immigration, Annual Report, 1918, p. 317.
  131. Roy Garis, Immigration Restriction: A Study of the Opposition to and Regulation of Immigration into the United States (New York: Macmillan, 1927), pp. 125 (quote), 118.
  132. Ibid., pp. 159, 164.
  133. Commissioner General oflmmigration, Annual Report, 1918, p. 319.
  134. William Wilson, Secretary of Labor, to Anthony Caminetti, Commissioner Gen- eral of Immigration, May 23, 1917, RG 59, 811.504/28; Avery Turner to John Silliman, Guadalajara consul, November 12, 1918, ibid., 811.504/139.
  135. Ibid.; C. M. Rork to Lansing, June 17, 1917, ibid., 811.504/104; Polk to Embassy, Mexico City, July 26, 1918, ibid., 81 l.504/120a.
  136. ReportoftheSecretaryofLabor, 1918, pp. 692-93.
  137. Otey Scruggs, "The First Fann Labor Program, 1917-1921," Arizona and the West 2 (Winter 1960): 321.
  138. Ibid., pp. 323-24;Excelsior, December IO, 1917; ibid., December 25, 1918.
  139. Galarza,Barrio Boy, pp. 200-02; Rodolfo Acufia, Occupied America (New York: Canfield Press, 1972), pp. 6-122, details Anglo-Mexican border tensions and hatreds. Robert McLean, That Mexican! (New York: Revell & Co., 1928), and Alden Case, Thirty Years with the Mexicans (New York: Revell & Co., 1917), are accounts by two Protestant missionaries.
  140. Public Law 12 (May 18, 1917), Selective Service Act, Statutes at Large, 60, pp. 78, 80; Gamio, The Mexican Immigrant, p. 56; El Paso def Norte (El Paso, Texas), May 23, 1917.
  141. Lelevier to Aguilar, August 24, 1917, AHSRE, 13-14-3; Douglas Daily Dispatch, August 25, 1917, ibid.; Consul General Teodulo Beltran to Carranza, July 27, 1917, Carranza papers.
  142. El Paso def Norte, June-July, 1917, passim; George Chamberlain, Consul Gen- eral, to Lansing, May 19, 1917, RG 59, 811.504/23.
  143. Posters in RG 59, 811.504/86; William Hanna, Consul General, to Lansing, May 24, 1917, ibid., 811.504/24; Hanna to Lansing, June 4, 1917, ibid., 8ll .504/29.
  144. Wilbur Carr, Director of the Consul Service, to Lansing, June 6, 1917, ibid., 811.504/23; Hanna to Lansing, August 21, 1917, ibid., 811.504/49; El Universal, July 15, 1918.
  145. Caminetti to Boaz Long, Chief of the Division of Mexican Affairs of the Depart- ment of State, January 4, 1919, RG 59, 81 l.504/145; Report of the Secretary of Labor, /9/9, pp. 707-09; House Committee on Immigration and Naturalization, Temporary Admission of Illiterate Mexican Laborers, passim, for arguments for the continuation of wartime waivers.
  146. House Committee, Temporary Admission of ... Laborers, passim, for the uses of bracero labor; Taylor, Mexican Labor ... Imperial Valley, p. 8; Report of the Secretary of Labor, 1920, p. 693.
  147. Report of the Secretary of Commerce and Reports of Bureaus, 1920, pp. 197-98, 200, 208, 223; Bureau of the Census, Fourteenth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1920, Vol. 2: Population (Washington: GPO, 1922), pp. 891, 897; New York Times, June 20, 1920; McLean and Williams, Old Spain in New America, p. 54; Bureau of the Census, Fifteenth Census of the United States: 1930, Population: Vol. 2, p. 27. CHAPTER 4 l. Womack, Zapata and the Mexican Revolution, passim; Rafael Hernandez, Politica agraria, julio de 1911 a junio de 1912 (Mexico: lmprenta de la Secretaria de Fomento, 1912), in Silva Herzog (ed.), La cuesti6n de la tierra, vol. 2, p. ll7;
  148. Escobar, "Indicaciones relativas a la colonizacion," ibid., vol. l, pp. 315-16;
  149. Toribio Esquivel Obregon, El problema agrario de Mexico (Mexico: lmprenta de la Vda. de Ch. Bouret, 1912), ibid., vol. 2, p. 132; Michael C. Meyer,Huerta, pp. 164-65.
  150. Hernandez, Politica agraria, julio de 1911 a junio de 1912, p. ll7; Moises Gon- zalez Navarro, Poblaci6n y sociedad en Mexico, 1900-1970, 2 vols. (Mexico: UNAM, 1974), vol. 2, p. 151.
  151. Gonzalez Navarro, Poblaci6n y sociedad en Mexico, vol. 2, pp. 224-25;
  152. Enrique Llorente, El Paso consul, to Madero, January 20, 1912, Ramo Madero, Archivo General de la Nacion, Mexico City, file 667-2.
  153. Manuel Bonilla, Apuntes para el estudio def programa agrario (Hermosillo: Imprenta del Estado, 1914), p. 26; El Universal, August 13, 1920.
  154. Diario Oficial 8 (November 7, 1917): 395.
  155. Gonzalez Navarro, Poblaci6n y sociedad en Mexico, vol. 1, p. 120 (first quote);
  156. Narciso Bassols Batalla, El pensamiento politico de Alvaro Obregon, 2nd ed. (Mexico: El Caballito, 1970), p. 74 (second quote);
  157. Gonzalez Navarro, Poblaci6n y sociedad, vol. 2, p. 179 (third quote);
  158. Diario de los debates del Congreso Constituyente, 1916-1917, 2 vols. (Mexico: Secretaria de Gobernacion, 1960), vol. 2, pp. 833, 860, 863.
  159. Diario Oficial 7 (November 11, 1917): 395; ibid. 14 (March 17, 1920): 1225-26; ibid. (March 23, 1920): 1345-47.
  160. Aguilar to Manuel Aguirre Berlanga, Secretary of Interior, June 14, 1918, AHSRE, 16-24-25; El Universal, March 17, 1920 (quote); New York Times, July 20, 1918.
  161. A large body of scholarship deals with diplomatic relations during the first decade of the Revolution. See, for example, Robert Quirk, An Affair of Honor: Woodrow Wilson and the Occupation of Veracruz (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1962);
  162. Berta Ulloa, La Revoluci6n intervenida: relaciones diplomdticas entre Mexico y Estados Unidos ( 1910-1914) (Mexico: Colegio de Mexico, 1971);
  163. Robert F. Smith, The United States and Revolutionary Nationalism in Mexico, 1916-1932 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1972);
  164. Lorenzo Meyer, Mexico and the United States in the Oil Controversy, 1917-1942, Trans. Muriel Vasconcellos, 2nd ed. (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1977).
  165. de 1916, 2 vols. (Mexico: n.p., 1933), vol. 2, p. 509; Manuel Gonzalez Ramirez, La Revoluci6n social de Mexico, 3 vols. (Mexico: UNAM, 1960), vol. 2, p. 387 (quote);
  166. McBride, The Land Systems of Mexico, p. 33; Fletcher to Lansing, March 6, 1918, in U.S. Department of State, Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, 1918 (Washington: GPO, 1930), pp. 606, 635-36.
  167. Diario Oficial 14 (March IO, 1920): 1089-90 (quote); ibid. (March 9, 1920): 1057-58; Adolfo de la Huerta, Sonora governor, to Carranza, September IO, 1916, Carranza papers; Alfonso Fabila, El problema de la emigraci6n de obreros y campesinos mexicanos (Mexico: Talleres Graficos de la Nacion, 1929);
  168. Aguilar to Jesus Acuna, Secretary of Interior, June 17, 1916, AHSRE, 17-20-21; Diario Oficial 8 (April 18, 1918): 1139; El Universal, April 15, 1918.
  169. Diario Oficial 14 (March 24, 1920): 1372; Alberto Ruiz Sandoval, El Paso Con- sul, to Aguilar, undated, AHSRE, 11-19-24. Typical examples of Yankeephobia include Querido Moheno, Casas def Tio Sam (Mexico: Revista Mexicana, 1916), pp. 55-57; Fabila, El problema de la emigraci6n, passim.
  170. Ferris to Lansing, March 11, 1920, RG 59, 811.504/203; Diario Oficial 8 (January 23, 1918): 196; Juan Gomez-Quinones, "The First Steps: Chicano Labor Conflict and Organizing, 1900-1920, "Aztldn, 3 (Spring, 1972), 13-49.
  171. Thomas Brennan, Monterrey consul, to Lansing, March 20, 1920, RG 59, 811.504/201; Silliman to Turner, November 23, 1918, ibid., 811.504/213.
  172. Undated clipping from Baja California Peri6dico Oficial, RG 59, 811.504/213; Lansing to Henry Ashurst, October 6, 1917, ibid., 811.504/56.
  173. Diario Oficial 14 (March 17, 1920): 1225-26, gives a resume of circulars sent to Department of Migration officials.
  174. Diario Oficial 14 (March 17, 1920), 1225-26; ibid. (March 24, 1920): 1373.
  175. Ibid., September 21, 1917 (quote); circular #13, November 10, 1916, AHSRE, 22-14-l.
  176. Circular#l4, November 11, 1916, AHSRE, 22-14-l.
  177. Diario Oficial 8 (January 23, 1918): p. 196; Lelevier to Aguilar, August 27, 1917, AHSRE, 13-14-30.
  178. Gamio, The Mexican Immigrant, pp. 56, 137, 216 (quote).
  179. Unsigned memorandum of June 10, 1922, entitled "Mexicanos emigrantes, medidas sugeridas para controlar sus energias," Obregon papers, 711-M-30;
  180. Enrique Colunga, Chief of the Legal Office of the Department of Migration, to Obregon, March 18, 1921, ibid., 822-M-l; U.S. Department of State, annual Registers for the names and jurisdictions of Mexican consuls.
  181. Diario Oficial 14 (March 17, 1920): 1225; Aguirre Berlanga to Ramon P. Denegri, Consul General, June 14, 1918, AHSRE, 16-24-25.
  182. Lelevier to Aguilar, August 27, 1917, AHSRE, 13-14-30.
  183. Bonillas to Polk, January 22, 1919, Department of State Decimal File, National Archives, Washington, D.C., RG 59, 311.12/380; New York Times, September 16, 1919.
  184. Beltran to Aguilar, May 25, 1918, AHSRE, 13-14-22.
  185. Manuel Rico, Tucson consul, to Andres Garcia, Inspector General of Consulates, October 8, 1917, ibid., 13-13-55; Aguilar to Raul Dominiguez, San Diego consul, October 22, 1917, ibid.; Adelaido Ortiz, Denver consul, to Aguilar, ibid.
  186. Bonillas to all consuls, September 22, 1917, ibid., 13-14-3; Garcia to Aguilar, August 21, 1917, ibid.; Mexico, Foreign Office, Diplomatic Dealings of the Constitutionalist Revolution of Mexico (Mexico: Secretary of Foreign Relations, 1919), p. 417.
  187. Rafael Calvo y Arias, Baltimore consul, to Aguilar, September 3, 1918, AHSRE, 1451; Ornelas-Bonillas correspondence, dated September 11 to 20, 1917, ibid., 13-14-3; Hernandez to Garcia, August 28, 1917, ibid., 62-R-2; Lelevier to Aguilar, July 20, 1917, ibid. CHAPTER 5 I. Alexander Weddell, Consul General, to Headquarters, March 23, 1927, RG 59, 150.126/165; Gonzalez y Gonzalez, San Jose de Gracia, pp. 142, 158 (quote);
  188. Gamio, The Mexican Immigrant, p. 43; Jean A. Meyer, The Cristero Rebellion: The Mexican People Between the Church and State, 1926-1929 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1976), pp. 178-79; John W. F. Dulles, Yesterday in Mexico (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1961), passim, for a factual account of the various outbursts of violence during this period.
  189. March 7, 1923, Obregon papers, 818-S-235; Francisco and Antonio Garfias to Calles, June 11, 1925, Calles papers, 818-A-170; Silva Herzog, El agrarismo mexicano y la reforma agraria, pp. 287, 364.
  190. Governor of Guanajuato to Calles, January 28, 1926, Calles papers, 818-C-148; Macario Franco to Emilio Portes Gil, December 20, 1929, Portes Gil papers, 6/837/707.
  191. A. R. Gomez to Obregon, November 8, 1922, Obregon papers, 101-P-12;
  192. Lieuwin, Mexican Militarism, pp. 59-61, 95, 99; Heather Fowler Salamini, Agrarian Radicalism in Veracruz, /920-38 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1978), p. 39.
  193. Ricardo Trevino, La acci6n mexicana frente de la actual situaci6n (Mexico: Talleres La Lucha, 1927), pp. 19-20; El Universal, February 23, 1930; Cumber- land, Mexico, p. 367; Secretarfa de la Presidencia y Nacional Financiera, 50 anos en cifras, p. 52.
  194. Melesio Dfaz to Obregon, April 6, 1923, Obregon papers, 818-S-228;
  195. Silva Herzog, El agrarismo mexicano y la reforma agraria, pp. 322, 340; Lorenzo Meyer, El conflicto social y las gobiernos de/ Maximato (Mexico: Colegio de Mexico, 1978), pp. 34-5, 173-210.
  196. Mexico, Secretarfa de Industria, La industria, el comercio y el trabajo en Mexico, 5 vols. (Mexico: Tip. Galas, 1928), vol. 3, pp. 64-65; Ernest Gruening, Mexico and Its Heritage (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1928), pp. 136-37.
  197. Mexico, Secretarfa de lndustria, Monograffa sabre el estado actual de la industria en Mexico (Mexico: Talleres Graficos de la Nacion, 1929), pp. 63-66; Reynolds, The Mexican Economy, pp. 44, 102-05, 163; Jean Meyer, Estado y sociedad con Calles (Mexico: Colegio de Mexico, 1977), pp. 151-74.
  198. Simmons, The Mexican Corrido, pp. 193-94 (first quote), 178 (second quote).
  199. IO. Ibid., p. 179. II. Gonzalez to Obregon, March 7, 1921, Obregon papers, 817-S-37; Escalante to Calles, July 20, 1927, Calles papers, 818-C-199; Taylor, Mexican Labor ...
  200. Chicago, p. 260 (quote).
  201. Quoted in Simmons, The Mexican Corrido, p. 348.
  202. Quoted in Paul S. Taylor, "Songs of the Mexican Migration," in J. Frank Dobie (ed.), Pura Mexicano (Austin: Texas Folk-Lore Society, 1935), pp. 238-39.
  203. Ibid., pp. 222-24, (quote).
  204. Palacios to Portes Gil, August 9, 1929, Portes Gil papers, 5/619/805; Lima to Calles, November 25, 1925, Calles papers, 724-L-l; C. Gonzalez to Calles, July 20, 1927, ibid., 822-G-14; Taylor,Arandas, p. 39.
  205. G. R. Carreon to Calles, January l, 1928, Calles papers, Serie A; Taylor, Mexican Labor ... Chicago, p. 263.
  206. Taylor, Mexican Labor ... Chicago, pp. 271-72 (first and second quotes);
  207. Gamio, The Mexican Immigrant, pp. 133-34 (third quote).
  208. Quoted in Vicente Mendoza, Lirica narrative de Mexico: el corrido (Mexico: UNAM, 1964), pp. 396-97.
  209. Macedonio Navarro et al., to Calles, January 5, 1928, Calles papers, 213-CH-I; Francisco Santiago to Obregon, July 9, 1921, Obregon papers, 213-S-1.
  210. Quoted in Gamio, Mexican Immigration, p. 107; I have corrected the verb tense in line five.
  211. Ibid., pp. 52-55; Gamio, The Mexican Immigrant, pp. 176 (quote), 177, 179, 185-86; ibid., pp. 46, 48-49, 109, 119; interview with Gilberto Loyo, July 19, 1971, Mexico City.
  212. Quoted in Taylor, "Songs of the Mexican Migration," pp. 241-43.
  213. Except as noted, these and other statistics are from the Annual Reports, 1920 to 1929.
  214. Gamio, Mexican Immigration, pp. 30-32; Postmaster General of the United States, Annual Reports, 1920 to 1929.
  215. Garis, Immigration Restriction, p. 146.
  216. Ibid., p. 170 (first quote);
  217. Jones, American Immigration, p. 277 (second and third quotes).
  218. Gamio, Mexican Immigration, p. 204.
  219. Commissioner General of Immigration,Annual Report, 1928, p. 69; idem,Annual Report, 1926, pp. 52-53; Mary Rak, Border Patrol (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1938), passim.
  220. Gamio, Mexican Immigration, pp. 205-07.
  221. Ibid., pp. 11-12.
  222. Francis I. Jones, Director General of the United States Employment Service, to Warren G. Harding, June 23, 1923, Harding papers, roll 140, file 15; Bureau of the Census, United States Census of Agriculture, /925. Part II/: The Western States (Washington: GPO, 1927), pp. 38, 46-47; Carter Goodrich et al., Migra- tion and Planes of Living, /920-/934 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1935), pp. 59-60.
  223. U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Immigration, Restriction of Western Hemisphere Immigration, 70th Congress, 1st Session, 1928, pp. 89-91, 111 (quote).
  224. Taylor, Mexican Labor ... Chicago, pp. 71-72;
  225. Anita Jones, Conditions Sur- rounding Mexicans in Chicago (San Francisco: R & E Research Associates, 1971), p.66.
  226. Taylor, Mexican labor ... South Platte, pp. 114-16;
  227. U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Immigration and Naturalization, Seasonal Agricultural laborers from Mexico, 69th Congress, 1st Session, 1929, pp. 29-30, 120-23; Mark Reisler, By the Sweat of Their Brow: Mexican Immigrant labor in the United States, /900-1940 (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1976), pp. 77-126, for a good account of employment patterns in the 1920s.
  228. Richard Boyce, Nuevo Laredo consul, to Kellogg, September 19, 1928, RG 59, 811.111 Mexico/100; Paul S. Taylor, Mexican labor in the United States: Dimmit County, Winter Garden District, South Texas, University of California Publica- tions in Economics, VI, number 5, (Berkeley, 1930), p. 325; idem, Mexican labor ... Imperial Valley, pp. 16-17.
  229. Schwartz, Seasonal Farm labor, pp. 113-14; Jane Addams, The Second Twenty Years at Hull House (New York: MacMillan, 1930), p. 282; Paul S. Taylor, Mexican labor in the United States: Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, University of California Publications in Economics, VI, number 2 (Berkeley, 1930), passim.
  230. Seasonal Agricultural laborers, pp. 13-15; Stowell, The Near Side, pp. 40-41.
  231. Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley, passim; Charles Hufford, The Social and Economic Effects of Mexican Migration into Texas (San Francisco: R & E Research Associates, 1971).
  232. Gamio, Mexican Immigration, pp. 37 (quote), 38-41, 45-46.
  233. Ibid., pp. 38, 41; see also L. G. Villalpando, Kansas City consul, to Secretary of Industry, May 9, 1922, in Boletin de[ Archivo General de la Nacion, 3rd series, 2 (enero-rnarzo, 1978), pp. 15-7.
  234. McLean, That Mexican!, pp. 125 (quote), 135, 141; Taylor, Mexican labor ... South Platte, pp. 170-71; J. B. Gwin, "Social Problems of Our Mexican Popu- lation," Proceedings (National Conference of Social Work), 1926 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1926), p. 332; Fact-Finding Committee, Mexicans in California, p. 191.
  235. A. F. Beddoe to Calles, February 18, 1928, Calles papers, 121-R-E-l.
  236. Fact-Finding Committee, Mexicans in California, p. 192; John O'Grady, Catholic Charities in the United States (Washington: National Conference of Catholic Charities, 1930), pp. 301-02.
  237. Gamio, The Mexican Immigrant, pp. 198 (quote), 198-200.
  238. Bureau of the Census, Fifteenth Census of the United States: 1930, Population: Vol. II (Washington: GPO, 1933), passim; Commissioner General oflmmigration, Annual Reports, 1925 to 1929; Taylor, Mexican labor ... Chicago, p. 2.
  239. Gamio, Mexican Immigration, p. 156 (quote);
  240. Taylor, Mexican labor ... Chicago, pp. 166-71; Taylor, Mexican labor ... Dimmitt County, p. 370; idem, Mexican labor . .. Imperial Valley, p. 72.
  241. Constantine Panunzio, How Mexicans Earn and Live, A Study of the Incomes and Expenditures of One Hundred Mexican Families in San Diego, California (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1933), pp. 48-49, 52, 55, 67, passim.
  242. Fact-Finding Committee, Mexicans in California, p. 77; Bureau of the Census, Special Report on Foreign-Born White Families by Country of Birth of Head (Washington: GPO, 1933), pp. 201, 211-12.
  243. 0. Douglas Weeks, "The League of United Latin-American Citizens: A Texas- Mexican Civic Organization," Southwestern Political and Social Science Quarterly IO (December 1928): 257-68; Matt. S. Meier and Feliciano Rivera, The Chicanos: A History of Mexican Americans (New York: Hill and Wang, 1972), pp. 240-41.
  244. Andres Landa y Pina, El Servicio de Migraci6n en Mexico (Mexico: Talleres Graficos de la Nacion, 1930), pp. 19, 23; Gamio, Mexican Immigration, pp. 7-12.
  245. Commissioner General of Immigration, Annual Report, 1920, p. 709; Davis to Cole, April 15, 1924, Congressional Record (April 1925): 1366-67; Estrada to Portes Gil, June 5, 1929, AHSRE, 33-42-19.
  246. Bureau of the Census, Fifteenth Census of the United States: 1930, Population: Vol. II, pp. 2, 25-27;
  247. Arthur F. Corwin, '\,Quien Sabe? Mexican Migration Statistics," in Arthur F. Corwin (ed.), Immigrants-and Immigrants: Perspec- tives on Mexican Labor Migration to the United States (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1978), pp. 109, 115, 130. CHAPTER 6
  248. "President's Conference on Unemployment," Monthly Labor Review 13 (November 1921): 128; John D. Hicks, Rehearsal for Disaster: The Boom and Collapse of 1919-1920 (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1961), pp. 77-78.
  249. El Universal, February 21 and 23, August 5, 1921; Los Angeles Times, February 17, 1921.
  250. Los Angeles Times, March IO, 1921; Secretary of Labor, Annual Report, 1921, p. 16; Commissioner, Montreal, Canada, to Anthony Caminetti, Commissioner General of Immigration, December 23, 1920, RG 85, I 1212/28; Inspector in charge to Commissioner, Montreal, Canada, February 22, 1921, ibid., 2106/G.
  251. Pereda to Thompson, April 25, 1921, RG 85, 55091/6; W. Frank Persons, Ameri- can Red Cross, to Walter W. Husband, Commissioner General of Immigration, May 9, 1921, ibid.; Hampton to Department of State, February 14, 1921, ibid., 54261/202-P;El Universal, December 23, 1920.
  252. Robert Bondy, Director of the Southwestern Division of the American Red Cross, to Husband, April 15, 1921, RG 85, 55091/6; Hampton to Charles Johnston, Division of Mexican Affairs of the Department of State, March 28, 1921, ibid.; Hampton to Representative Joseph Fordney, March 19, 1921, ibid., 54261/202-P.
  253. Cockrell to Obregon, May 18, 1921, Obregon papers, 822-M-l.
  254. Dulles, Yesterday in Mexico, pp. 106-07; El Universal, December JO, 1921.
  255. Aaron Saenz, Subsecretary of Foreign Relations, to Adolfo de la Huerta, Secretary of Treasury, May 11, 1921, Obregon papers, 822-M-l; Obregon to Alberto J. Pani, Secretary of Foreign Relations, February 6, 1921, ibid., 121-R-M; a copy of the memorandum is in Obregon papers, 822-M-I; unsigned memorandum of January 1923, in AHSRE, 36-16-318.
  256. Pecina from April 2 to May 2, 1921, in Obregon papers, 121-R-M and 814-R-5.
  257. IO. Obregon to Ruiz, January 29, 1921, ibid., 407-A-2;
  258. Scruggs, "First Farm Labor Program," p. 325.
  259. Ruiz to Obregon, February 9, 1921, Obregon papers, 429-P-2; Obregon to Priego, April 23, 1921, ibid., 822-M-l.
  260. Series of telegrams between Obregon and Gaxiola dated May 3 to June 9, 1921, ibid.
  261. Ruiz to Obregon, December 31, 1921, ibid.; Norman Humphrey, "Mexican Re- patriation from Michigan: Public Assistance in Historical Perspective," Social Service Review 15 (September 1941): 500.
  262. Inspector in charge to Commissioner, Montreal, Canada, February 22, 1921, RG 85, 2106/G; Ruiz to Obregon, May 4, 1921, Obregon papers, 822-M-l; Obregon to President, Southern Pacific Company, May 4, 1921, ibid.; F. S. McGinnis, General Passenger Agent, Southern Pacific Company, to Los Angeles County Charities, May 6, 1921, ibid. (copy only).
  263. Saenz to Obregon, January 24, 1921, ibid.; Pecina to Obregon, May 2, 1921, Obregon papers, 822-M-1; William Kemper, President Kansas City, Mexico and Orient Railway, to Obregon, June 2, 1921, ibid.; Francisco Alatorre, national Railroad Administration, to Obregon, June 2, 1921, ibid.; El Universal, Sep- tember 2, 1921.
  264. Obregon to Denver, Colorado Mexican colony, February 15, 1922, Obregon papers, 822-C-424; Obregon to Governor of Chihuahua, February 15, 1921, ibid.; El Universal, March 12, 1922; Mercedes Carreras de Velasco, Los mexicanos que devolvi6 la crises 1929-1932 (Mexico: Secretaria de Relaciones Exteriores, 1974), pp. 48-49.
  265. Gamio, Mexican Immigration, pp. 57, 71, 128, 177-78.
  266. Ibid., pp. 74-75, 114-17.
  267. Excelsior, March 20, 1924 (third and fourth quotes);
  268. Gustavo Duron Gonzalez, Problemas migratorios de Mexico (Mexico: Talleres de la Camara de Diputados, 1925), pp. 71, 117. Gilberto Loyo (ed.), El inmigrante mexicano (Mexico: UNAM, 1969).
  269. Rafael Munoz, "El Repatriado," in his Si me han de matar mailana (Mexico: Ediciones Botas, 1934), pp. 177-92; F. Rand Morton, Los novelistas de la Revoluci6n mexicana (Mexico: Editorial Cultura, 1949), pp. 142-43. For similar baleful fiction see Ignacio Munoz, La verdad sobre los gringos (Mexico: Ediciones Populares, 1927).
  270. Gilberto Loyo, Emigraci6n de mexicanos a los Estados Unidos (Rome: lnstituto Poligrafico dello Stato, 1931), passim; Gilberto Loyo, La politica demogrdfica de Mexico (Mexico: Talleres Tipograficos de S. Turanzas del Valle, 1935), pp. 375-76; Santibanez, Ensayo, pp. 48-49; Gonzalez Navarro, Poblaci6n ysociedad, vol. 2, pp. 181-82.
  271. Obregon to Pani, May 19, 1921, Obregon papers, 814-R-5.
  272. Pani to Calles, April 5, 1922, AHSRE, 36-16-318;
  273. Enrique Gonzalez, Consul General, to Genaro Estrada, Secretary of Foreign Relations, January 20, 1930, ibid., 18-22-7;
  274. Kaye Lynn Briegel, "Alianza Hispano-Americana, 1894-1965: A Mexican American Fraternal Insurance Society," (Ph.D. dissertation in History, University of Southern California, 1974), pp. 1-107.
  275. Headquarters to all consuls, September 3, 1926, AHSRE, 73-1-1, circularnumber 5630; Colunga to Obregon, March 18, 1921, Obregon papers, 822-M-l.
  276. Gamio, Mexican Immigration, p. viii; Calles to Arturo Butchart, Gran Liga de Resistencia de Nacionales Sin Trabajo, July 15, 1925, Calles papers, 711-L-21; Santibanez to all consuls, February 15, 1929, AHSRE, 015-73-46/1.
  277. Gonzalez Navarro, Poblaci6n y sociedad, vol. 2, pp. 38-39; Bassols Batalla, El pensamiento politico de Alvaro Obregon, pp. 74-75.
  278. ''Ley de Migracion de los Estados Unidos de Mexico,'' Diario Oficial 61 (August 30, 1930): supplement, pp. 1-12; Estrada to Ambassador Jose Puig Casauranc, January 27, 1931, AHSRE, 016/1/238-7.
  279. Unsigned memorandum of June IO, 1922, in Obregon papers, 711-M-30 (quote and substance);
  280. Smith, The United States and Revolutionary Nationalism, pp. 200-202; Karl M. Schmitt, Mexico and the United States, 182/-1973 (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1974), p. 162.
  281. Schmitt, Mexico and the United States, p. 162; Estrada to Santibanez, February 27, 1929, AHSRE, 015-73-46/1; Lorenzo Meyer, Mexico and the United States in the Oil Controversy, 1917-1942, trans. Muriel Vasconcellos (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1977), pp. 81-104.
  282. Silva Herzog, El agrarismo mexicano y la reforma agraria, pp. 285 (quote), 287.
  283. Meyer, The Cristero Rebellion, pp. 24-29; San Antonio, Texas, La Prensa clip- ping dated October 1929, in Portes Gil papers, 4/724/217; Gonzalez Navarro, Poblaci6n y sociedad, vol. 2, p. 163.
  284. Fabila, El problema de la emigraci6n, pp. 8-11, 13, 26, 30, 32-34, passim.
  285. Obregon to Calles, March 7, 1923, Obregon papers, 822-C-5; Calles to Canales, January 26, 1928, Calles papers, 822-L-5; Kellogg to Davis, June 26, 1926, RG 59, 150.128/70.
  286. Harper to Kellogg, September 17, 1925, RG 59, 812.5611/1;
  287. David Meyers, Durango consul, to headquarters, March 7, 1924, ibid., 150.126/141.
  288. Dwyre to Kellogg, May 12, 1930, ibid., 811.111 Mexico/373; Diario Oficial 28 (September 3, 1924): 11; ibid., 29 (April 17, 1925): 1873.
  289. Gonzalez Navarro, Poblaci6n y sociedad, vol. 2, p. 208; Secretaria de Goberna- cion,Memorias, /928-1929, pp. 152, 147; ibid., 1929-/930, p. 277.
  290. Memorandum of January 1923 [?] in AHSRE, 36-16-318.
  291. Obregon to Ponciano Carrera, February 24, 1922, Obregon papers, 822-D-2730 (quote); Obregon to Denver, Colorado Mexican colony, ibid.; Calles to Javier Cabrera, May 7, 1928, Calles papers, 217-C-121; all are illustrative of the hundreds of denials.
  292. Calles to Obregon, March 7, 1923, Obregon papers, 822-C-5.
  293. Circular number 31 dated October 21, 1921, AHSRE, 2214-1 (quote); Pani to all consuls, November 1, 1922, ibid.
  294. Pani to Calles, April 5, 1922, ibid., 36-16-318; Pani to Calles, December 6, 1926, Calles papers, 121-R-E-I; Luis Perez Abreu, San Antonio consul, to Santibanez, March 1, 1927, ibid., 241-R-F.
  295. Manuel Payno, Phoenix consul, to Estrada, January IO, 1929, AHSRE, 26-1-929; Obregon to Carlos Davila, July 24, 1924, Obregon papers, 822-C-9.
  296. Payno to Estrada, January IO, 1929, AHSRE, 26-1-929.
  297. Seasonal Agricultural Laborers, p. 336; New York Times, November 16, 17, 18, 23, 1922, January 31, 1923.
  298. New York Times, September 17, 20, 21, 1923; Obregon to Sociedad Protectora Mexicana de Gary, Indiana, April 3, 1924, Obregon papers, 822-M-I; Secretaria de Relaciones Exteriores, Memorias, 1925-1926, p. 151 (quote).
  299. Santibanez, Ensayo, pp. 56-57; Gonzalez to Estrada, January 20, 1930, AHSRE, 18-22-7.
  300. Gamio, The Mexican Immigrant, p. IO.
  301. Pascual Ortiz Rubio to Julio Lozano, President of the Cruz Azul Mexicana of San Antonio, December 30, 1930, Ortiz Rubio papers, 49/ll23; Taylor, Mexican Labor ... Imperial Valley, pp. 61-64.
  302. Gamio, Mexican Immigration, p. 132; Taylor, Mexican Labor ... Valley of the South Platte, pp. 184-85; Secretarfa de Relaciones Exteriores, Memorias, 1925- 1926, p. 149, and 1929-1930, vol. 2, p. 1712.
  303. Excelsior, March 20, 1924 (quote);
  304. Francisco Alva to Obregon, December 27, 1920, Obregon papers, 805-A-l.
  305. Garcia to Calles, December 2, 1927, Calles papers, 241-R-N; New York Times, April 9, 1924.
  306. Obregon to Cockrell, March 24, 1923, Obregon papers, 822-F-[sic];
  307. Estrada to Santibanez, February 27, 1929, AHSRE, 015-73-46/l; Santibanez, Ensayo, p. 52 and preface.
  308. Memorandum of conversation between Estrada, Monnett Davis, and Mr. Morgan, Counselor of the American Embassy, February 28, 1929, RG 59, 811.l l l Mexico/144; Santibanez, Ensayo, pp. 104-05; Gamio, Mexican Immigration, pp. 184-85; idem, "Migration and Planning," Survey 66 (May I, 1933): 174-75.
  309. William Cochran, Mexico City vice consul, to headquarters, December 23, 1932, RG 59, 81 l.l ll Mexico/942 (quote and substance);
  310. Davis to Hoover, December 4, 1929, Hoover papers, "Immigration-Correspondence, 1929 April-December;" Richard Craig, The Bracero Program (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1971), passim. CHAPTER 7 l. Vernon McCombs, From Over the Border (New York: Council of Women for Home Missions and Missionary Education, 1925), p. 136; McLean, That
  311. Mexican!, pp. 70-182.
  312. McLean, That Mexican!, pp. 64-65; McCombs, From Over the Border, pp. 77-78;
  313. Case, Thirty Years with the Mexicans, p. 242; Samuel Guy Inman, Inter- vention in Mexico (New York: George H. Doran Company, 1919), p. 209 (quote);
  314. Jay Stowell, The Near Side of the Mexican Question (New York: George H. Doran Company, 1921), pp. 67-69.
  315. McLean and Williams, Old Spain in New America, p. 19 (first quote);
  316. Stowell, The Near Side of the Mexican Question, pp. 79 (second quote), 45-49; Case, Thirty Years with the Mexicans, p. 244.
  317. Edwin Brown, "The challenge of Mexican Immigration," The Missionary Review of the World 49 (March 1926): 192-94, 196.
  318. Stowell, The Near Side of the Mexican Question, pp. 80-82; McCombs, From Over the Border, p. 155; Joseph Dawson, "Among the Mexicans in Texas," The Missionary Review of the World 50 (October 1927): 758; J. T. Larsen, "A Needy Field," ibid. 53 (May 1930): 364; Case, Thirty Years with the Mexicans, pp. 265, 244.
  319. Robert Speer, Race and Race Relations: A Christian View of Human Contacts (New York: Fleming H. Revell Co., 1924), pp. 418 (quote), 391-92, 418-20;
  320. McLean, That Mexican!, pp. 23-24; Stowell, The Near Side of the Mexican Question, pp. 115-21.
  321. McCombs, From Over the Border, pp. 124-26 (first quote); Pittsburgh Post clipping of June 4, 1923, in Obregon papers, 104-R 1-E-19 (second quote).
  322. Louise Shields, "Mexican Ambassadors of Good Will," The World Tomorrow ll (February 2, 1928): 81; Investigation of Mexican Affairs, vol. I, pp. 7, 68-69, 144;
  323. Schmitt, Mexico and the United States, p. 141; Smith, The United States and Revolutionary Nationalism, p. 156.
  324. "Resolutions of the National Conference Concerning Mexicans and Spanish- Americans in the United States, December 11-16, 1926," Calles papers, 121-R- E-1;
  325. George Hinman, American Missionary Society, to Calles, January 12, 1927, ibid., 71I-M-30;New York Times, December 14, 1924.
  326. IO. Gerald Shaughnessy, Has the Immigrant Kept the Faith? (New York: The Mac- millan Company, 1925), pp. 221-22 (quote), 214; Gamio, Mexican Immigration, pp. 120-22.
  327. John Murphy, An Analysis of the Attitudes of American Catholics Toward the Immigrant and the Negro, 1825-1925 (Washington: The Catholic University of America Press, 1940), pp. 93-94; Shaughnessy, Has the Immigrant Kept the Faith?, pp. 259-61.
  328. Taylor, Nueces County, p. 133 (quote);
  329. Carey McWilliams, North From Mexico (New York: Greenwood Press, 1968), p. 190; U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Immigration and Naturalization, Seasonal Agricultural Laborers from Mexico, 69th Congress, 1st Session, 1926), p. 265.
  330. Taylor, Nueces County, p. 300; William Kirkbride, "Mexican Migration," The Com- monwealth 21 (March 23, 1926): 14-15.
  331. Temporary Admission of Illiterate Mexican Laborers, pp. 4-6, 13, 20 (quote); Seasonal Agricultural Laborers from Mexico, pp. 6, 62.
  332. Seasonal Agricultural Laborers from Mexico, p. 7.
  333. Ibid., pp. 4-5, 7, 32, 88, 103; Temporary Admission of llliterate Mexican Laborers, p. 64;Mexicans in California, pp. 153, 167, 171.
  334. Francisco Pesquiera, Los Angeles consul, to Estrada, May 8, 1929, AHSRE, 16-V-929;Seasonal Agricultural Laborers from Mexico, p. 7 (quote).
  335. John Dye, Ciudad Juarez consul, to Kellogg, November 22, 1927, RG 59, 812.56II/ 16;
  336. Joan Wilson, American Business and Foreign Policy, 1920-1933 (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1971), pp. 161-66; Kenneth Grieb, The Latin American Policy of Warren G. Harding (Fort Worth: The Texas Christian Univer- sity Press, 1976), passim.
  337. Herbert Hoover to Milton Florsheim, September 22, 1924, "Commerce Papers," Hoover papers; Alexander DeConde, Herbert Hoover's Latin-American Policy (New York: Octagon Books, 1970), p. 6 (quote);
  338. Joan Wilson, Herbert Hoover: Forgotten Progressive (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1975), pp. 108-09, 199-200; Joseph Tulchin, The Aftermath of War: World War 1 and U.S. Policy Toward Latin America (New York: New York University Press, 1971), pp. 79-81 and passim.
  339. Joseph Grew, Turbulent Era: A Diplomatic Record of Forty Years, 1904-1945, 2 vols. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1952), vol. I, pp. 634, 638, 663; Elting Morison, Turmoil and Tradition: A Study of the Life and Times of Henry L. Stimson (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1960), pp. 314-15; Louis Ethan Ellis, Frank B. Kellogg and American Foreign Relations, 1925-1929 (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1961), p. 23; Harold Nicolson, Dwight Morrow (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1935), pp. 294-347; Robert Zieger, Republicans and Labor, 1919-1929 (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1969), pp. 59-60, 63, 271-73; Meyer, Estado y sociedad con Calles, pp. 35-8, 270-5.
  340. Hoover to John Raker, February 19, 1924, "Commerce papers," Hoover papers; John Dye, Commercial Attache, Mexico City Embassy to Ambassador Warren, April 5, 1924, ibid.; Weddell to Kellogg, February 11, 1925, RG 59, 811.504/282;
  341. Zieger, Republicans and Labor, pp. 83-86.
  342. Morrow to Kellogg, December 13, 1928, RG 59, 812.5611/24; H. F. Arthur Schoenfield, Mexico City consul, to Kellogg, June 22, 1927, ibid., /32.
  343. "Stenographic Notes of Immigration and Visa Discussions at the Consular Conference, Mexico City, October 15-19, 1937," RG 59, 811.lll Mexico/1261. , pp. 313-15.
  344. Stenographic Notes of Immigration and Visa Discussions.
  345. Everett Drumwright, vice consul Ciudad Juarez, to headquarters, September 3, 1931, ibid., /665; Davis to Cole, April 15, 1925, in Congressional Record (January 6, 1925): 1366-67; Report of the Secretary of Labor, 1926, p. ll3; Congressional Record (April 15, 1926): 5878-79; Martinez, Border Boom Town, pp. 66-7.
  346. W. R. Mansfield, District Director Immigration Service, Denver, Colorado, to Husband, August 8, 1924, RG 85, 4007/l; Mansfield to Caminetti, February 4, 1921, ibid., 54261/202; Husband to Rep. Thomas Blanton, April 5, 1922, ibid., 55091/6; Robe White, Assistant Secretary of Labor, to W. T. Mathews, District Attorney, Elko, Nevada, April 13, 1923, ibid., 55091/8.
  347. Interview with E. J. Walker, former employee of the Arizona Cotton Growers Association, April 30, 1929, Taylor, "Unpublished Field Notes," pp. 497-98.
  348. Edwin Keith, Acting Chief of the Division of Mexican Affairs of the Department of State, to Manuel Tellez, First Secretary of the Mexican Embassy, September 15, 1921, RG 59, l50.l23/l5a; Sokobin to Stimson, July II, 1932, ibid., 811.lll
  349. Samuel Gompers, "America Must Not Be Overwhelmed," American Federa- tionist 29 (November 1924): 313-14; Harvey Levenstein, "The AFL and Mexican Immigration in the l920's: An Experiment in Labor Diplomacy," Hispanic American Historical Review 48 (May 1968): 207-09;
  350. U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Immigration, Restriction of Western Hemisphere Immigration, 70th Congress, 1st Session, 1928, p. 9.
  351. Commissioner General of Immigration, Annual Report, 1927, pp. 185-188; Annual Report, 1929, p. 16; New York Times, December 3, 1928.
  352. Max Handman, "The Mexican Immigrant in Texas," Proceedings (National Con- ference of Social Work) 53 (1926): 334; Theodore Roosevelt, "Immigration," National Republic 17 (1929): 34; Seasonal Agricultural Laborers from Mexico, pp. 297, 344.
  353. Garis, Immigration Restriction, pp. 203-04; Benjamin Keen, The Aztec Image in Western Thought (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1971), p. 381; Marvin Harris, The Rise of Anthropological Theory (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Co., 1968), pp. ll8-41.
  354. C. M. Goethe, "Immigration from Mexico," in Madison Grant and Charles Davison (eds.), The Alien in Our Midst or ''Selling Our Birthright for a Mess of Pottage" (New York: The Gallon Publishing Co., Inc., 1930), pp. 140-41;
  355. Frederick Burnham, "The Howl for Cheap Mexican Labor," ibid., p. 45;
  356. Albert Johnson, "The Opponents of Restricted Immigration," ibid., p. IO; Mark Reisler, "Always the Laborer, Never the Citizen: Anglo Perceptions of the Mexican Immigrant During the 1920s," Pacific Historical Review 45 (May 1976): 231-54 gives a lengthy catalog of stereotypes.
  357. Madison Grant, The Passing of the Great Race, or the Racial Basis of European History (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1916), pp. 15, 69, 80-81, 150.
  358. Robert Foerster, The Racial Problems Involved in Immigration from Latin America and the West Indies to the United States (Washington: GPO, 1925), pp. 13-14, 48, 60-61;
  359. C. M. Goethe, "Peons Need Not Apply," World's Work 59 (November 1930): 165-70; Glenn Hoover, ''Our Mexican Immigrants,'' Foreign Affairs 8 (October 1929): 104.
  360. Foerster, The Racial Problems Involved in Immigration from Latin America and the West Indies to the United States, pp. 43, 46 (quote);
  361. Theodore Lathrop Stoddard, The Rising Tide of Color Against White World-Supremacy (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1920), pp. 107-08; idem, Re-Forging America: The Story of Our Nationhood (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1927), p. 258.
  362. Stoddard, Re-Forging America, p. 216 (quotes);
  363. Stoddard, The Rising Tide of Color, p. 220; Temporary Admission of llliterate Mexican Laborers, pp. 6, 303.
  364. Chicago Daily Tribune, May 13, 1925, clipping in Calles papers, 721-S-39; Cruz Zabala to Obregon, August 24, 1924, Obregon papers, 104-T-10; Remsen Craw- ford, "Six Years oflmmigrant Quotas," Saturday Evening Post 200 (October 29, 1927): 122; Stoddard, Re-Forging America, pp. 258-60.
  365. Harvey Levenstein, labor Organizations in the United States and Mexico: A History of Their Relations (New York: Greenwood Publishing Co., 1971), pp. 55-57, 98 (quote).
  366. Levenstein, "The AFL and Mexican Immigration in the 1920's," pp. 209-19.
  367. Annual Report of the Secretary of labor, 1923, pp. 61, 105, 170, 175; Higham, Strangers in the land, p. 325; Levenstein, labor Organizations in the United States and Mexico, pp. 99-100.
  368. Rep. Adolph Sabath to President Harding, May 17, 1921, Harding papers, roll 178, file 114; Rufus Tucker, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, to Hoover, February 14, 1924, ''Commerce papers,'' Hoover papers; Congressional Record (April 18, 1924): 6621, 6623-24, 6630.
  369. Congressional Record (May 23, 1928): 9609; John Box, Imported Pauper labor (Washington: GPO, 1921), passim.
  370. Charles Howland, Survey of American Foreign Relations (New Haven: Yale Uni- versity Press, 1931), pp. 225-26; Jones, American Immigration, pp. 262-65, 269-70, 276-77; Madison Grant, "America for the Americans," Forum 74 (September 1925): 346-55; Roy Garis, "National Origins and Deportations," Scribner's Magazine 83 (January 1928): 52-56.
  371. Seasonal Agricultural laborers from Mexico; Restriction of Western Hemisphere Immigration; U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Immigration and Naturaliza- tion, Immigration from Mexico, 71st Congress, 2nd Session, 1930; ibid., Western Hemisphere Immigration; ibid., Immigration From Countries of the Western Hemisphere.
  372. Commissioner General of Immigration, Annual Report, 1927, pp. 185-87; idem, Annual Report, 1929, p. 16; idem, Annual Report, 1930, p. 17; Annual Report of the Secretary of labor, 1928, pp. 135-44; New York Times, May 13, 1926, and December 3, 1928.
  373. Kellogg to Coolidge, July 21, 1927, Coolidge papers, file 133, reel 79; Coolidge to Davis, July 25, 1927, ibid., file 20D, reel 20; Davis to Coolidge, July 29, 1927, ibid.
  374. Immigration from Mexico, p. 3; Davis to Hoover, April 29, 1929, "Presidential Papers, Immigration Correspondence, 1929 April-December," Hoover papers; Levenstein, Labor Organizations in the United States and Mexico, p. 125; New York Times, March 6, 1928.
  375. Kellogg to Coolidge, February 13, 1928, and April 10, 1928, Coolidge papers, file 133, reel 79.
  376. El Universal, December 18, 1928; Excelsior, March 3, 1928; New York Times, May 19 and 20, 1929.
  377. Morrow to Kellogg, November 15, 1927, RG 59, 812.5611/11; Kellogg to Morrow, July 5, 1928, ibid., Sil.Ill Mexico/82.
  378. Western Hemisphere Immigration, p. 28; John Simmons, Chief of Visa Division, to William Dawson, Consul General, December 30, 1929, RG 59, /305 1/2.
  379. Maurice Altaffer, Nogales consul, to Kellogg, September 12, 1929, ibid., /272; Johnson to Hoover, July 13, 1929, "Presidential Papers, Immigration Correspon- dence, 1929 April-December," Hoover papers; El Universal, May 29, 1929; New York Times, July 3, 1929.
  380. Alejandro Lubbert, Consul General, to Estrada, October 16, 1929, AHSRE, 4-Yl-9191928 (Mexico: Talleres Graficos de la Nacion, 1928), p. 26; El Universal, February 3, 1930.
  381. Congressional Record (February 16, 1929): 3614-21;
  382. Arthur F. Corwin, "A Story of Ad Hoc Exemptions: American Immigration Policy Toward Mexico," in Corwin (ed.),Jmmigrants-and Immigrants, pp. 146-48.
  383. Hull to all personnel, April 6, 1929, RG 85, 55598/496; Richard Boyce, Nuevo Laredo consul, to Kellogg, November I, 1929, RG 59, 81 I.I I I Mexico/285.
  384. Congressional Record (April 21, 1930): 7325 (quote); ibid. (May 13, 1930): 8841-44.
  385. Robert Divine, American Immigration Policy, 1924-1952 (New Haven: Yale Uni- versity Press, 1957), pp. 65-66.
  386. CHAPTER 8 I. William E. Leuchtenburg, The Perils of Prosperity, 1914-32 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958), pp. 247-48, 254; Joseph Dorfman, The Economic Mind in American Civilization, 5 vols. (New York: The Viking Press, 1946-59), vol. 5, p. 621; Murray Rothbard, America's Great Depression (Princeton: Van Nostrand, 1963), p. 290.
  387. Ignacio Batiza, Detroit consul, to Tellez, March 7, 1930, AHSRE, 73-14/17. IV-76-3; Jose Bejarano, Mexican Commercial Agent in New York City, to Luis Leon, Secretary of Industry, April 5, 1930, Ortiz Rubio papers, 2/217/47766;
  388. Leuchtenburg, The Perils of Prosperity, p. 252; Abraham Hoffman, Unwanted Mexican Americans in the Great Depression: Repatriation Pressures, 1929-1939 (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1974), pp. 120-22; Mercedes Carreras de Velasco, Los mexicanos que devolvi6 la crisis 1929-1932 (Mexico: Secretaria de Relaciones Exteriores, 1974), pp. 58-59.
  389. Gonzalez to Secretary Tellez, January 1, 1932, AHSRE, 41-26-139; Santibanez to all consuls, October 27, 1930, ibid., 73-46-32; Santibanez to Estrada, October 25, 1930, ibid., 73-84-1; Gonzalez to Ortiz Rubio, April 4, 1932, Ortiz Rubio papers, 250; Martinez, Border Boom Town, pp. 80-82, 89-90.
  390. Quoted in Taylor, "Songs of the Mexican Migration," pp. 232-33.
  391. Ray Wilbur and Arthur Hyde, The Hoover Policies (New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1937), p. 144; Call Bulletin editorial, July 31, 1930, in Hoover papers, "Immigration-Clippings 1930," and passim for other clippings.
  392. Quoted in Taylor, "Songs of the Mexican Migration," pp. 234-35.
  393. Carey Mc Williams, "Getting Rid of the Mexicans," American Mercury 28 (March 1933): 322-24; Norman D. Humphrey, "Mexican Repatriation from Michigan: Public Assistance in Historical Perspective," Social Service Review 15 (September 1941): 497-513; Hoffman, Unwanted Mexican Americans, pp. I 16-17 and passim.
  394. Dwyre to Henry L. Stimson, Secretary of State, July 20, 1934, RG 59, 81 I.I I I Mexico/141; Robert McLean, "Goodby, Vicente!," Survey 66 (May I, 1931): 182;
  395. Divine, American Immigration Policy, p. 77; Hoffman, Unwanted Mexican Americans, p. 126; Moises Gonzalez Navarro, "Efectos sociales de la crises de 1929," Historia Mexicana 18 (abril-junio, 1970): 536-58; Commissioner General oflmmigration,Annual Report, 1931, p. 9.
  396. IO. J. Reuben Clark to Stimson, February 20, 1931, RG 59, 150. 126/245;
  397. Carreras de Velasco, Los mexicanos que devolvi6 la crisis, p. 74.
  398. Pesquiera to Estrada, June 2, 1931, AHSRE, IV-362-46; Estrada to Rafael de la Colina, Los Angeles consul, May ll, 1931, ibid., IV-339-18.
  399. Letters and telegrams between Martinez and other parties, ibid., IV-360-28.
  400. Jose Puig Casauranc, Mexican Ambassador, to Stimson, November 23 and December 2, 1931, ibid., 32-76-29; Eduardo Villasenor, Chief of Consular Department, to Puig, November 12, 1931, ibid.
  401. Tellez to Santibanez, May 21, 1932, ibid., IV-361-25; Carreras de Velasco, Los mexicanos que devolvi6 la crisis, p. 98; Hoffman, Unwanted Mexican Americans, pp. 139-40.
  402. Colina to Tellez, March 13, 1932, AHSRE, IV-549-1; Fernando Alatorre, San Bernardino consul, to Estrada, ibid., IV-362-46; Los Angeles La Opinion clipping of October 28, 1932, ibid., IV-549-1.
  403. James C. Gilbert, "A Field Study in Mexico of the Mexican Repatriation Movement" (Master's thesis, Department of Sociology, University of Southern California, 1934), pp. 62, 69 (quotes);
  404. Carreras de Velasco, Los mexicanos que devolvi6 la crisis, pp. 135-38; Meyer, El conflicto social, pp. 35, 83-88, 173-210.
  405. Quoted in Taylor, "Songs of the Mexican Migration," p. 236. title of Mexican Labor in the United States, and they contain extensive field observations which detail conditions of labor, housing patterns, and American attitudes, to mention only a few of the topics in these works. They include Imperial Valley, California, University of California Publications in Economics, VI, number 1 (Berkeley, 1928); Valley of the South Platte, Col- orado, ibid., number 2 (Berkeley, 1929); Dimmit County, Winter Garden District, South Texas, ibid., number 5 (Berkeley, 1930); Chicago and the Calumet Region, ibid., VII, number 2 (Berkeley, 1932). The same author's A Mexican-American Frontier: Nueces County, Texas (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1934), A Spanish-American Peasant Community: Arandas in Jalisco, Mexico (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1933), and "Songs of the Mexican Migration," in J. Frank Dobie (ed.), Puro Mexicano (Austin: Texas Folklore Society, 1935), amplify (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1930) and The Mexican Immigrant: His Life Story (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1931). include: Robert McLean, That Mexican! (New York: Revell & Co., 1928), and Vernon McCombs, From Over the Border (New York: Council of Women for Home Missions and Missionary Education, 1925). (2nd ed.; Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Economica, 1959). Two excellent local studies of rural communities, which, it is hoped, will be models for others like them, are: Luis Gonzalez y Gonzalez, San Jose de Gracia: Mexican Village in Transi- tion, trans. John Upton (2nd ed.; Austin: University of Texas Press, 1974);
  406. and Paul Friedrich, Agrarian Revolt in a Mexican Village (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1970), a study of the ejido and its inhabitants in Naranja, exceptions: Charles Cumberland's Mexican Revolution: Genesis Under Madero (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1952)
  407. and Stanley R. Ross 's Francisco I. Madero: Apostle of Mexican Democracy (New York: Columbia University Press, 1955), both provide excellent cover- age of the period from 1904 to 1913. Michael C. Meyer, Huerta: A Political Portrait (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1972) ably unravels the history of the much misunderstood 1913-16 period. Cumberland's Mexican Revolution: The Constitutionalist Years (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1972Century (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1973), and Harold Barger and Hans H. Landsberg, in American Agriculture, 1899-1939 (New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1942), provide a wealth of information regard- ing the economic and demographic trends of the area. Donald Meinig, in Southwest: Three Peoples in Geographical Change, 1600-1970 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1971), approaches the same themes from a different perspective. Index Madero, Francisco, 31, 38-39, 55-57
  408. Mexico, government policy, 31-33, 55-57,59-66, !07-13, 11~18, 139, 149-50. See also Consuls, Mexican Migration Law of 1908 (Mexico), !07 Migration Law of 1926 (Mexico), !07 Migration Law of 1930 (Mexico), !07-8
  409. Obregon, Alvaro, 58, 73, 98-!03, !05-6, 117
  410. Population, 9-IO Portes Gil, Emilio, 73, 117, 139 Protestant missionaries, 45, 90---91, 121-23
  411. Railroads, 13-17 Recession of 1907, 32 Recession of 1921, 97-99 Repatriation, 99-!03, 112-13, 145-48, 150---51 Restriction of immigration, 135-36. See also Attitudes toward emigration; United States, government policy Selective Service Act of 1917, 49-51, 68-69 Special Mexican commissioners, 99-IOI. See also Mexico, government policy. Statistics of emigration, 12, 29, 32, 34-36,40,52-53,93-95
  412. Taylor, Paul S., 26, 92 United States, government policy, 33-34, 44-48, 51-52, 127-31, 138-42 Wages: in Mexico, IO, 14, 17, 73-74, 87; in United States, 22-23, 27, 45, 73-74, 82, 87-89
  413. Welfare services, 90

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