Papers by Simon Timberlake
Tracing atmospheric metal mining pollution in blanket peat
Prospecting for Bronze Age metal mines and beyond : archaeological excavation, survey and palaeo-environmental research within Wales and the UK
EThOS - Electronic Theses Online ServiceGBUnited Kingdo
Prehistoric Metal Mining in Britain: The Study of Cobble Stone Mining Tools Based on Artefact Study, Ethnography and Experimentation * Minería Prehistórica en Gran Bretaña: El Estudio De Herramientas Mineras Líticas a Partir De Estudios Artefactuales, Etnografía y Experimentación
Bronze Age lead mining at Copa Hill, Cwmystwyth : fact or fantasy?
Historical metallurgy, 2000
In a recent paper, Bick (1999) questions whether the Bronze Age mines discovered in midWales were... more In a recent paper, Bick (1999) questions whether the Bronze Age mines discovered in midWales were exploited for lead, or lead and silver, instead of copper and re-considers whether the ores were used for metal smelting. We present a short review of recent archaeological evidence and geochemical data from a blanket peat located close to the Bronze Age mine at Copa Hill, Cwmystwyth in order to consider the ideas presented by Bick. Increased copper concentrations in the peat profiles coincide with the known tenancy of the Bronze Age mine suggesting that the miner's primary interest was to obtain copper. Archaeological evidence suggests that copper was extracted in the form of chalcopyrite from the copper-lead-zinc sulphide veins. Only low concentrations of lead and silver are recorded in the peat and this evidence raises doubts over the mining of lead and silver at Copa Hill in antiquity.
Excavations on Copa Hill, Cwmystwyth (1986-1999): An Early Bronze Age copper mine within the uplands of Central Wales
A report on excavations at the Early Bronze Age copper mine in the uplands of Central Wales. Copa... more A report on excavations at the Early Bronze Age copper mine in the uplands of Central Wales. Copa Hill is one of the best preserved and fully-excavated examples of primitive trench mines. The book presents an abundance of stone, antler and wooden mining artefacts as well as excavation and survey results from the mine itself and surrounding landscape. The site was probably used between 2000 and 1600 BC.
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 2017
To develop our understanding of the relationship between vegetation change and past mining and me... more To develop our understanding of the relationship between vegetation change and past mining and metallurgy new approaches and further studies are required to ascertain the 2 significance of the environmental impacts of the metallurgical industry. Using new pollen and geochemical data from Cors Fochno (Borth Bog), Wales, we examine whether prehistoric and Roman mining and metallurgy had a significant impact on the development of vegetation and compare the findings with previous studies across Europe on contamination and vegetation change to develop a conceptual model. The evidence suggests that early mining and metallurgy had a minimal impact on vegetation, especially woodlands, with small-scale, non-permanent phases of woodland clearance. The impact was more severe during Roman times, but very few sites show woodland clearance followed by regeneration. Records do suggest that woodlands underwent compositional changes in tandem with increased atmospheric pollution, possibly in part as a result of demands for wood fuel for mining and metallurgy, but otherwise woodlands show a degree of resilience. The results from Cors Fochno suggest that vegetation changes that occurred during periods of mining and metallurgy, as inferred from changepoint analysis, were insignificant compared to later periods, including Roman times.
Materials and Manufacturing Processes, 2016
Over the last 25 years new evidence has emerged of the scale of prospection for copper and its mi... more Over the last 25 years new evidence has emerged of the scale of prospection for copper and its mining during the Early-Middle Bronze Age in Britain. We know of 12 mines worked in the period 2100-1600BC, whilst the largest mine on the Great Orme continued until the Late Bronze Age, with perhaps its maximum output which may have been equivalent to 30+ tons of copper metal sometime between 1500-1300 BC. Bronze Age copper ores represent the now missing oxidised zones of many ore deposits, the enriched ores being easier to smelt. In this respect the reasons why the richest ores in Cornwall were apparently not worked is discussed. The earliest tin extraction in Cornwall probably occurred during the Early Bronze Age, given the evidence for smelted tin and cassiterite, yet support for the antiquity of tin mining might be provided through the dating of some of the earliest mining artefacts, such as the antler pick from the Carnon streamworks. Yet other lines of research include palaeoenvironmental investigations carried out within the tin streaming areas, and isotopic provenancing of the tin in Bronze Age bronze. Alluvial gold may have been extracted from the Cornish tin streams more than 4000 2 years ago, and could have been the main source of the gold used in Ireland and Britain during the Copper-Early Bronze Ages, a theory supported by recent lead isotope work carried out on gold artefacts and sources. However, finds of gold artefacts in areas with alluvial gold suggests that one source would not have been exclusive, particularly during the later Bronze Age. Although it sometimes tends to be invisible, lead has been used in small amounts since the Early Bronze Age, first for jewellery, and then from the Middle Bronze Age as rare artefacts, and for alloying in bronze to assist in casting. The earliest silver artefact also dates to this period. The Mendips in Somerset may have been a Late Bronze Age source of lead. Various models are examined for the exploitation of metals from the Copper Age to the Late Bronze Age, looking at the status of miners, the nature of exchange, resource protection, experimentation, prospection and the discovery of ores. It seems possible also that the rapid development of the Bronze Age in Britain owes much to the early extraction of gold in SW England and the discovery of tin. limited number of sites (such as the Great Orme in North Wales [2 + 3]) that continued to the end of the Bronze Age. All of these investigations, except for those on the Great Orme, form part of a long term programme of study undertaken by the Early Mines Research Group. MATERIALS AND METHODS This paper provides an account of the recent archaeological work which establishes the case for copper mining, whilst looking at and discussing the evidence for gold, tin and lead exploitation, the latter based on artefact finds, palaeo-environmental investigations, and the scientific provenancing of metal. Each of the five metals will be looked at in turn (copper, tin, gold, lead + silver) and the model(s) of metal exploitation and use discussed, beginning with copper. The analytical methods used in the various studies referred to in this paper include the radiocarbon dating (AMS dating) of bone, antler, wood and charcoal, the chemical analysis of trace elements within ores, metals and sediments (ICPMS, AAS, SEM-EDX), and the lead and tin isotope analysis of ores and metals (gold, tin and copper) carried out for purposes of provenancing.
Using bog archives to reconstruct paleopollution and vegetation change during the late Holocene
Characterising vegetation changes in former mining and metalworking areas during prehistoric and Roman times
Journal of Archaeological Science, 2002
This paper investigates the use of mine sediments to reconstruct the vegetational changes and atm... more This paper investigates the use of mine sediments to reconstruct the vegetational changes and atmospheric pollution history associated with prehistoric and Mediaeval metal mining in the Ystwyth valley, Dyfed, mid-Wales. Pollen, charcoal, plant macrofossils, fossil insects and chemical analyses are presented from radiocarbon-dated sediments contained within a prehistoric mine situated on the upper slope of Copa Hill, close to the village of Cwmystwyth. The results provide additional support to the hypothesis that prehistoric mining had a negligible impact on woodland and that deforestation took place after Bronze Age mining ceased. Although high concentrations of Cu, Pb and Zn were determined from sediments of prehistoric and Roman Age, the patterns bear little resemblance to off site atmospheric pollution records and to the archaeological evidence for metal mining. Interpreting geochemical data from mine contexts is problematic as numerous factors influence the distribution and concentration of metals. However, an on-site and off-site approach to investigate human-environment interactions caused by metal mining is advocated.
Natural preservation mechanisms at play in a Bronze Age wooden shovel found in the copper mines of Alderley Edge
Journal of Archaeological Science, 2011
A wooden shovel, dating from the Early Bronze Age, has survived in a remarkable state of preserva... more A wooden shovel, dating from the Early Bronze Age, has survived in a remarkable state of preservation in the copper mines of Alderley Edge, Cheshire UK. Other historic timbers recovered from the mines, whilst still intact, have fared less well. An X-ray investigation into the distribution of minerals through the shovel using portable X-ray Fluorescence (PXRF) along with the use
Stone hammers and fire-setting: a preliminary experiment at Cwmystwyth mine, Dyfed
Bulletin of the Peak District Mines Historical …, 1988
Abstract: Stone hammers and charcoal of middle Bronze'Age have been located at Cwmystwyth. E... more Abstract: Stone hammers and charcoal of middle Bronze'Age have been located at Cwmystwyth. Experiments were maae into firesetting and use of stone hammers for primary mining of indurated rock at the site. Results indicated their use would have been a viable ...
Chapter 17 Using bog archives to reconstruct paleopollution and vegetation change during the late Holocene
Developments in Earth Surface Processes, 2006
Publisher Summary Metal mining landscapes are a palimpsest of human activities, both agricultural... more Publisher Summary Metal mining landscapes are a palimpsest of human activities, both agricultural and industrial which have interacted in complex ways. Both farmers and metallurgists have helped to create the cultural landscape of today. Paleoenvironmental investigations have chronicled those changes but separating their respective roles and impacts has yet to be fully achieved. Woodland disturbance does, however, coincide with phases of elevated metal concentrations. The reconstruction of atmospheric metal deposition histories close to former metallurgical sites can be useful to test element mobility in bogs. Once immobility of an element has been established, bog archives can be used as an archeological tool to understand the history of a mine or metalworking site.
Addenbrooke's Hospital Excavations, 2007 & 2010: The Last of the Cra'ster's Enclosure
In 1967 a team led by Mary Cra'ster undertook the rescue excavation of an Iron Age enclosure ... more In 1967 a team led by Mary Cra'ster undertook the rescue excavation of an Iron Age enclosure discovered during the construction of Addenbrooke's Hospital in Cambridge. Following the Cambridge Archaeological Unit's large-scale excavations at the Hutchison Site along the western side of the hospital grounds in 2002-03, subsequent development afforded an opportunity to further investigate Cra'ster's enclosure. This article gives a brief appraisal of Cra'ster's findings before describing the results of the 2007 and 2010 excavations. As the area was known to be truncated and any minor settlement features were unlikely to survive, the main aim of the recent programme was to achieve substantive finds and environmental assemblages from the enclosure to provide greater context for the earlier fieldwork. Aside from a possible pit and plough furrows, the main enclosure ditch was the only significant feature present. The pottery assemblage indicated a Middle/later Ir...
Smelting Experiments at Butser
archaeology for part-time students, introducing advanced archaeological methods and practice. Thi... more archaeology for part-time students, introducing advanced archaeological methods and practice. This comprises a number of 2-day core courses and 5-day specialist modules. One of the modules this year was experimental archaeology, exemplified by smelting experiments. These were based at the Butser Ancient Farm Project in Hampshire, and organised by Simon Timberlake and Paul Craddock. There were 8 students, who we divided into three teams to carry out a number of experiments. Figure 1 Clay-lined smelting hearth with tuyère in place before use. (Photo. PTC) Smelting experiments to test hypotheses and evaluate early processes have an important role in archaeometallurgy as exemplified by the series of
New research into Roman metal mining in Britain
Copper Mining, Prospection and the Beaker Phenomenon in Wales — the Significance of the Banc Tynddol Gold Disc
Celtic from the West 3
Archaeology of mining in the pre-industrial age
Making Sense of Mining History, 2019
Stone Hammers and Firesetting
From ore to artifact: smelting Alderley Edge copper ores and the casting of a small copper axe
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Papers by Simon Timberlake